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ter, viz., cadaver, iter, spinther, tūber (a hump), uber, ver, and verber (rarely used in the singular, but very frequently in the plural, verbera), and all the names of plants in er: acer, cicer, laser, papaver, piper, siler, siser, suber, and zingiber. Tuber (a kind of peach-tree) is feminine, but when it denotes the fruit it is masculine. Linter is commonly used as a feminine, but is well attested also as a masculine.

Exceptions in es increasing in the genitive.-The following are feminine: merges, itis; seges and teges, ĕtis; merces, ēdis; quies, ētis, with its compounds inquies and requies. Compes, which, however, does not occur in the nominative sing., but only in the plural compedes, is feminine. Aes, aeris, is neuter; ales and quadrupes are properly adjectives, but as substantives they are mostly used as ferr mines.

CHAPTER XVIII.

n

GENDER OF WORDS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION.-FEMININES.

[§ 77.] FEMININE are those which end in as, is, ys, aus, and x, those in es which do not increase in the genitive, and those in s preceded by a consonant, e. g., auctoritas, navis, chlamys, laus and fraus, pax, radix, arx, nubes, pars, mors, hiems.

Exceptions in as.-The following are masculine: as, gen. assis, and its compounds, though they have different terminations; as, quadransa fourth of an as; bes, two thirds of an as; decussis, ten ases;* and the Greek words which make their genitive in antis; as, adamas, elephas, and the names of mountains: Acragas, Atlas, Mimas. Mas, măris, and vas, vădis, are, of course, masculine. The following are neuters: Greek words in as, which make their genitive atis; as, artocreas, erysipelas (see § 58), and the Latin words vas, vasis, and fas and nefas, which, however, occur only in the nom. and accus.

Exceptions in is.-The following are masculine: 1. Those in is, gen. ĕris; as, cinis, cucumis, pulvis, and vomis (commonly vomer); 2. The following, which increase in

* See the Appendix on Roman weights, coins, and measures.

the genitive: glis, lapis, pollis, and sanguis; 3. The fo. lowing, which do not increase: amnis, axis, callis, canalis cassis (used especially in the plural casses, a hunter's net, and not to be confounded with cassis, idis, a helmet); caulis or colis, collis, crinis, ensis, fascis (generally in the plural, fasces), finis, follis, funis, fustis, ignis, mensis, orbis, panis, piscis, postis, scrobis, sentis, torquis, torris, unguis, vectis, vermis. Some of these words, however, are used by good authors also as feminines, though not often, especially cullis, canalis, scrobis, torquis, and finis, cinis, in the singular; whereas the plural fines, in the sense of boundary or territory, and cineres, in the sense of the ashes of a corpse, are always masculine.

As mensis is masculine, Aprilis, Quintilis, and Sextilis have the same gender. Some substantives in is are properly adjectives, and a substantive masculine being always understood, they are themselves used as masculines; e. g., annalis, commonly in the plural annales (libri), annals; jugales (equi), two horses yoked together; molaris (lapis), a millstone; or, if dens is understood, a back tooth or grinder; natalis (dies), birthday; pugillares (libelli), a tablet for writing.

Note.-Anguis and tigris may have either gender; canis is generally masculine, but when it denotes a dog used in hunting, it is very often feminine. (See § 42.) Aqualis, callis, corbis, and clunis, plur. clunes, are used by good writers as words of either gender. Delphis is masculine; but the more common forms are delphinus, or delphin. Cossis has not been mentioned above, because the only authority we have for it is a doubtful passage in Pliny, Hist. Nat., xxx., 39, and cossus, i, is more probable.

That the names of rivers in is are masculine follows from the general rule (37); thus we read horridus Albis, flavus Tiberis, rapidus Tigris. Names of mountains with this termination are not numerous: Lucretilis, a hill in Latium, is masculine; for Horace says, amoenus Lucretilis. The Greek names Carambis, a promontory on the Asiatic coast of the Black Sea, and Peloris in Sicily, are feminine, the word ükрa being understood. All the masculines in is, whatever may be their genitive, are contained in the following hexameter lines:

Mascula sunt panis, piscis, crinis, cinis, ignis,
Funis, glis, vectis, follis, fascis, lapis, amnis,
Sic fustis, postis, scrobis, axis, vermis et unguis,
Et penis, collis, callis, sic sanguis et ensis,
Mugilis et mensis, pollis, cum caule canalis,
Et vomis, sentis, pulvis, finis, cucumisque,
Anguis, item torquis, torris, cum cassibus orois.

Exceptions in ys.-Names of rivers and mountains with this termination are masculine, according to the rules laid down in Chap. VI.; e. g., Halys, Othrys.

[§ 78.] Exceptions in x.-The following are masculine : 1. The Greek words in ax: as, anthrax, cordax, thorax

The majority of those in ex: apex, caudex, codex, ci c, cortex, culex, frutex, grex, irpex, latex, murex, obex, lex, pollex, pulex, pumex, ramex, silex, sorex, ulex, vertex or vortex. 3. Some in ix: viz., calix, fornix, phoenix, sorix; and generally, also, varix. 4. One word in ux: viz., tradux, properly an adjective, palmes being understood. 5. The following Greek words in ya: calyx, coccyx, onyx, oryx and bombyx (in the sense of silk-worm; it is feminine when it signifies silk); and the names of mountains, such as Eryx. 6. The subdivisions of an as which end in unx; as, quincunx, septunx, deunx. (See Appendix III.)

Note. Many words in ex, commonly enumerated in thèse lists, are masculine from their signification; such as rex, pontifex, carnifex, foenisex, verver. Some words vary between the masculine and feminine genders; as, cortex, obex, pumex, and silex, which have been mentioned above, but the masc. is better attested. To these we must add imbrex and rumex, both genders of which are supported by equal authority. It may be remarked that the number of masculines in ex is greater than that of feminines; for if we put aside the above-mentioned masculines, there remain only the following feminines: forfex, lex, nex, supellex, prex (not used in the nom.), and faex. Pellex, ilex, vitex, and carex are feminines from their meaning, according to the general rule. Atriplex is the only neuter in ex, and is rarely used as a feminine.

Onyx is masculine when it denotes a species of marble, or a vessel made of it; but as the name of a precious stone (see § 39) it is feminine. Cala is sometimes used as a masculine like the diminutive calculus, but it does not occur in ancient writers. Lynx occurs as masculine only in a single passage of Horace (timidos lyncas), and is otherwise feminine, as in Greek. The archaic cum primo luci is believed to be preserved in a passage of Cicero (De Off., iii., 31. Comp. Varro, De L. L., vi., 9).

Exceptions in es, gen. is, without increase.-The Greek word acinaces alone (ȧkiváкng, ov) is decidedly masculine. Vepres, which rarely occurs in the singular, and palumbes, though commonly masculines, are found also as feminines.

Exceptions in s preceded by a consonant.-The follow ing are masculine: dens, fons, mons, and pons; adeps commonly, and forceps sometimes. Some words are properly adjectives, but are used as masculine substantives, because a substantive of that gender is understood: confluens or confluentes (amnes), torrens (amnis), oriens and occidens (sol), rudens (funis), bidens and tridens; and several Greek words, such as elops, epops (Lat. upupa), merops, gryps (gryphis), hydrops, chalybs.

Note. The divisions of the as ending in ns, e. g., sextans, quadrans, triens, dodrans, are masculine, as was remarked § 77. Serpens, in prose writers, is generally feminine, but the poets use it also as a masculine. Stirps, in a figurative sense, is always feminine, but in its original sense of "stem" i' is frequently found as a masculine. Continens, the continent, properis

an adjective, is of doubtful gender, though the feminine is perhaps prefera ble. Bidens, a fork, is masculine; but when it signifies "a sheep two years old" it is feminine, ovis being understood. The plural torrentia, from torrens, occurs in Curtius, ix., 35, and must be explained by supplying flumina, torrens being properly an adjective. A few participles used as substantives in philosophical language are neuters; as, ens, accidens, consequens. Animans, being properly a participle, occurs in all three genders; but, according to the practice of Cicero, it is generally feminine in the sense of "a living being," and masculine in the sense of "a rational creature." (See Schneider, Formenlehre, p. 126, fol.)

CHAPTER XIX.

GENDER OF WORDS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION.-NEUTERS.

[§ 79.] WORDS ending in a, e, i, y, c, l, n, t, ar, ur, us are neuter; e. g., poëma, mare, sināpi, misy, lac and alec, animal, mel, carmen, flumen, caput (the only word of this termination), calcar, pulvinar, fulgur, guttur, opus, tempus.

1. Exceptions in l.-The following are masculine: sol, sal, and mugil, which form is more common than mugilis. Sal, in the singular, is sometimes found as a neuter, but in the plural the ancients use only sales, both in the sense of "salt" and in the more common one of "witticisms." Salia, in the sense of "different kinds of salt," is only a modern medical term.

2 Exceptions in n.-There are only three Latin words in en which are masculine, viz., pecten, pectinis, rēn and lien (or lienis); the others in en are of Greek origin; e. g., attagen, lichen, and splen. Delphin (commonly delphinus), paean, agon, canon, gnomon, horizon, and the names of mountains in on; as, Cithaeron, Helicon, are likewise masculines. The following in on are feminine: aëdon, halcyon (Lat. alcedo), icon, and sindon; and, according to the general rule, all the Greek names of towns, with a few exceptions, such as Marathon, which is more frequently masculine.

3. Exceptions in ar.-Par is common in the sense of "mate," but neuter in the sense of "a pair.”

4. Exceptions in ur.—Astur, turtur, vultur, and furfur are masculine.

5. Exceptions in us.-All words of two or more syllables which retain the u in the genitive, that is, which end in útis or ūdis, are feminine; e. g., juventus, salus, senectus, servitus, virtus; incus, palus, and subscus; also,

tellus, telluris, and pecus, pecudis, a sheep, whereas pecus, pecoris (neut.), signifies "cattle" in general. Venus, Ve neris, the name of a goddess, is naturally feminine; but it retains the same gender in the sense of "gracefulness" (generally in the plural). Respecting the names of animals in us, see above, § 42. Lepus and mus are masculine; grus and sus are feminine when the particular sex is not to be specified. Of Greek words in us, tripus, tripodis, is masculine; apus and lagōpus are feminine, perhaps only because avis is understood. Rhus, as a tree, is feminine; as a seed or spice, masculine.

CHAPTER XX.

FOURTH DECLENSION.

[§ 80.] THE fourth declension is only a particular spe cies of the third, which has arisen from contraction and elision. The nominative of masculine and feminine words ends in us, and of neuters in u. The following is the form of their declension :

[blocks in formation]

Acc. fruct-us.
Voc. fruct-us.

Abl. fruct-ibus.

corn-ŭa.

corn-ibus.

The following words may be used as exercises: actus, coetus, cursus, gradus, lusus, magistratus, motus, sensus, sumptus, vultus: the only neuters are, genu, gelu, veru, pecu (the same as pecus, õris). Tonitrus and tonitruum, plur. tonitrua, are more commonly used than tonitru.

Formerly it was believed that the neuters in u were indeclinable in the singular, but recent investiga ions (es

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