What has here been said of deus alone is applied by poets to other words also: they not unfrequently imitate the Greeks by making the vocative like the nominative, e. g., Terent., Phorm., ii., 2, 10: O vir fortis atque amicus! Horat., de Art. Poët., 292, vos, O Pompilius sanguis! Carm.. i., 2, 43, almae filius Maiae. Ovid, Fast., iv., 731, populus. In Livy, too, it occurs in some ancient formulæ; as, viii., 9, agedum pontifex publicus populi Rom.; and i., 24, tu populus Albanus; but there is no reason for doubting the form popule, which occurs in other passages.

[951.] Note 4.-The genitive plural of some words, especially those which denote money, measure, and weight, is commonly um* instead of orum, particularly nummum, sestertium, denarium, cadum, medimnum, modium, jugerum, talentum. Nummum is commonly used in this way in connexion with numerals; whereas otherwise, when it merely denotes money in general, nummorum is the usual form, e. g., tantum nummorum, acervi nummorum. There are some other words in which this is the usual form in certain combinations, such as praefectus fabrum, or socium, from faber and socius; so, also, duumvirum, triumvirum, decemvirum. Liberi and deus have both forms, liberorum, deorum, and liberum, deum. Poets indulge in still greater licenses, especially with names of nations; they say, e. g., Argivum, Danaum, Poenum, &c., instead of Argivorum, Danaorum, Poenorum, and in Livy we find Celtiberum, as well as Celtiberorum. We might point out several more isolated peculiarities of this kind; as, ephorum in Corn. Nepos, Agesil., 4. Respecting the genitive of numerals (cardinal, and especially distributive numerals), see below, Chap. XXIX. and XXX.

Note 5.-Deus has three forms in the nom. and ablat. plur., viz., dei, dii, and di, and deis, diis, and dis. The forms in i are the most usual, and in reality only one of them, since dii and diis were pronounced as monosyllables (Priscian, p. 737), and are most frequently found thus spelled in the ancient MSS.

The following words may serve as exercises of declen sion: Annus, year; corvus, raven; hortus, garden; lectus, bed; medicus, physician; morbus, illness; nuntius, messenger; populus, people; rivus, brook; taurus, bull; ventus, wind. Neuters in um: Astrum, star; bellum, war; collum, neck; dolium, cask; donum, present; membrum, limb; negotium, business; ovum, egg; poculum, cup; proelium, battle; sepulcrum, sepulchre; signum, sign; tergum, back; vinculum, fetter. Those in er, genit. eri, have been mentioned above. The following are the most common among those which reject the e before the r: Ager, field; aper, boar; arbiter, arbitrator; auster, south wind; cancer, cancer, or crab; coluber, snake; culter, knife; faber, workman; liber, book; magister, teacher; minister, servant. To these must be added the proper names in er, e. g., Alexander, genit. Alexandri. The adjectives which reject

* We do not write ûm, as is done in most editions, for several reasons: 1. Because it is doubtful whether this form arose from contraction; 2. Because, according to the testimony of the ancient grammarians, no final syllable in m with a vowel before it is long (which would be implied in the circumflex), whence no one would be able to distinguish by his ear such a genitive as nummum from the accus. sing., as Quintilian, i., 6, 17. attests; and, 3. Because no accents are used in Latin.

the e are aeger, ater, creber, glaber, macer, niger, piger, impiger, pulcher, ruber, sacer, scaber, sinister, taeter, vafer.

CHAPTER XII.

GREEK WORDS OF THE SECOND DECLENSION.

[§ 52.] GREEK words in os and neuters in ov, which make ov in the genitive, are commonly Latinized in the nominative by the terminations us and um, such as the common nouns taurus, antrum, theatrum, and the proper names Homerus, Pyrrhus, Corinthus. Other common nouns, which are more rarely used, admit of both terminations in the nominative; as, arctos and arctus, barbitos and barbitus, scorpios and scorpius; and this is still more frequently the case in proper names, so that, e. g., Paros, Delos, Isthmos, and Ilion are used along with Parus, Delus, Isthmus, and Ilium. Generally speaking, however, the Greek forms belong more particularly to poets and the later prose writers. Greek names in poç, with a conson ant before it, sometimes become Latinized by the termination er, and sometimes they change pos into rus, and make their vocative in ĕ. The former takes place in by far the greater number of cases, e. g., Alexander, Maeander, Teucer; the only instances in which the termination rus is found are, Codrus, Hebrus, Locrus, Petrus.* In the compounds of μéтpov, and a few others, both forms are used, as hexameter and hexametrus, though the latter occurs more frequently. Words ending in os in the nominative may make the accusative in on instead of um; as, Delon, Bosporon, Tarson. The nominative plural sometimes ends in oe (the Greek diphthong o), as in canephoroe, Cicero, in Verr., iv., 3, 8; Locroe, Quintil., x., 1, 70.1

* [To these Schneider subjoins Myriandrus, Antandrus, hydrus, amphi macrus, diametrus, and perimetrus. (L. G., vol. iii., p. 75.)]—Am. Ed.

+[This ending belongs properly to the earlier state of the language. Thus, in Plautus (Cas. prol., 31) we have clerumena, and also (Poen., i., 1, 9) lera. In many MSS., too, the Comedy of Terence which we entitle Adelphi, is called Adelpha. Besides Cicero and Quintilian, however, we find it in Nepos (Miltiad., iv., 3), hemerodrome; in Pliny (H. N., 37, 10), bolo; and most frequently in the names of nations and cities; as, Sello (Lucan, iii., 180); Holma (Plin., H. N., v., 27); Arimaspa (Pomp. Mela, ii., 1, 2), &c. (Consult Schneider, L. G., vol. iii., p. 82, seq.)]---Am. Ed.

The genitive plural in on, instead of orum, occurs in the titles of books, such as Bucolicon, Georgicon.*

2. Greek proper names in ovç, contracted from oos, are in Latin either resolved into ous or end in ūs; as, Alcinõus, Aristonūs, Panthus. The vocative of the latter form is u; as, Panthu.

3. Some Greek proper names in wc, which in Greek follow the second Attic declension (as, Athos, Ceos, Cos Teos), in Latin either follow the Greek declension, e. g., Athos, gen. and dat. Atho, accus. Atho or Athon; or they take the Latin form; as, Tyndareus for Tyndareōs, and Cous (for Cos, Kws), Coo, Coum, ablat. Co, e. g., in Co insula. Athos, however, is also declined as a noun of the third declension with the nominative Athon or AthoAthonem, Athone.

4. Greek words in evç of the third Greek declension, such as Orpheus, Idomeneus, Phalereus, Prometheus, were pronounced in Latin sometimes eus, as one syllable, and sometimes ĕus. The best way is to make them follow entirely the second Latin declension; as, Orpheï, Orpheo, Orpheum, with the exception of the vocative, which (according to the Greek third declension) ends in eu. The Greek terminations, gen. eos, dat. ei (contracted ē), accus. că, are chiefly found in poetry; but the accusative is frequent also with prose writers, though Cicero (ad Att., vii., 3) does not approve of it; as, Phalerea, Promethea, Tydea. The terminations ei, eo, ea are sometimes contracted by poets into a diphthong, because the metre requires it. (See above, § 11.) Horace makes the genitive of Achilles and Ulixes-Achillei, Ulixei, or contracted Achiller, Ulixer, as though the nominative still ended in ευς. The name Perseus is usually formed by Cicero after the first declension: nom. Perses, gen. and dat. Persae, acc. Persen, abl. Perse and Persa. Livy preferred the second declension: Perseus, Persei, Perseo (rarely Persi, according to the third, like the Greek Пɛpσɛî), but in the accusative he has more frequently Persea than Per

seum.

* [And in some unusual geographical names; as, Colonia Theron (Sall., Jug., xix., 3); Philenon aræ (Ïd. ib.); Tegestræon (Prisc., Perieg., 375.)]—

Am. Ed.

+ In some words also ea, if the verse requires it; as, Idomenea, Ilionea na and că are Ionic forms, and the Attic ea is not customary in Latin

CHAPTER XIII.

GENDER OF THE NOUNS OF THE SECOND DECLENSION.

[§ 53.] 1. NOUNS in us, er, and ir are masculine; those in um, and the Greek nouns in on, are neuter.

2. Of those in us, however, the following are feminine: the names of plants and precious stones, as well as those of towns and islands, with a few exceptions. (See above, § 39.) It must be observed that in many cases where the name of a tree ends in us fem., there is a form in um denoting the fruit of the tree, e. g., cerasus, cerasum; malus, malum; morus, morum; pirus, pirum; prunus, prunum; pomus, pomum; but ficus signifies both the tree and the fruit. There are only four other genuine Latin words in us which are feminine, viz., alvus, humus, vannus, and colus, which, however, is sometimes declined after the fourth declension, gen. us. Pampinus, a branch of a vine, is rarely feminine, but commonly masculine. Virus (juice or poison) and pelagus (τò néhayoç, the sea) are neuter. Vulgus (the people) is sometimes masculine, but more frequently neuter.

[$ 54.] Note. With regard to the numerous Greek feminines in us (or os) which have been adopted into the Latin language, such as the compounds of n odos: exodus, methodus, periodus, and synodus, the student must be referred to his Greek grammar, for the Latin differs in this respect from the Greek. The words biblus, and papyrus (the Egyptian papyrus), byssus, and carbasus (a fine flax and the linen made out of it), are feminine, being names of plants; but they retain this gender also when they denote things manufactured from them. Pharus, being the name of an island, is feminine; but it is also feminine in the sense of a light-house, which meaning it obtained from the fact of the first light-house being built in that island near Alexandria; it is, however, now and then used as a masculine (Sueton., Claud., 20). Arctus (os), denoting a bear, is properly both masc. and fem.; but as the name of a constellation, it is in Latin always feminine. Barbitus (a lyre), or barbitos, is sometimes used as fem. and sometimes as masc., but we also find hoc barbiton.

We must notice here especially a number of words which in Greek are properly adjectives, and are used as feminine substantives, because a substantive of this gender is understood. Such words are: abyssus, atõmus, dialectus, diphthongus, eremus, paragraphus, diametrus, and perimetrus, the last two of which, however, are used by Latin writers also with the Greek termination os. For the substantives understood in these cases, see the Greek Grammar. As different substantives may be understood, we have both antidotus and antidotum. The word epōdus also belongs to this class, but its gender varies according to its different meanings: when it denotes a lyric epilogue, it is feminine; when it denotes a shorter iambic verse after a longer one, or when it is the name of the peculiar species of Horatian poetry, it is inasculine.

CHAPTER XIV.

THIRD DECLENSION.-GENITIVE.

[§ 55.] NOUNS of the third declension form their geni tive in is. The nominative has a great variety of termi nations, for sometimes there is no particular ending, and the nominative itself is the crude form,* such as it usually appears after the separation of the termination of the genitive; frequently, however, the nominative has a special ending (s). The former is, generally speaking, the case with those words the crude form of which ends in 7 or r, so that the nominative ends in the same consonants, and the genitive is formed by simply adding is; e. g., sol, consul, calcar, agger, auctor, dolor, murmur. Words like pater and imber, the crude form of which appears in the genitive and ends in r, with a consonant before it, as patr-is, imbr-is, admit of a double explanation: either the nominative was increased for the purpose of facilitating the pronunciation, or the genitive rejected the short e; the former, however, is the more probable supposition. In some words the nominative has s instead of r; as, flos, gen. flor-is; tellus, tellur-is; in addition to which the vowel sometimes undergoes a change, as in corpus, corpor-is; onus, oner-is. When the crude form ends in n, with a vowel before it, the formation of the nominative is likewise accompanied by changes: on throws off the n, and in becomes en, or is changed into o. Thus, leo is made from leon (leon-is), carmen from carmin (carmin-is), and virgo from virgin (virgin-is.) Only when the genitive ends in enis, the nominative retains en, as in lien-is, liën. 2. The particular termination which the nominative receives in other cases is e for neuters; as, mar-is, mar-e, and s, or x, which arises out of s, for masculines and feminines. This s is sometimes added to the final consonant of the crude form without any change, as in urb-is, urb-s;

[See some excellent remarks on the crude forms of nouns, in Allen's Etymological Analysis of Latin Verbs, p. 8, seqq. As every crude form must end either in a consonant or a vowel (a, e, i, o, u), we have the more philosophical arrangement of the consonant-declension on the one hand, and the a-declension, e-declension, i-declension, o-declension, and u-declen. sion on the other. The term crude form was first employed, as is thought by Bopp, in the Annals of Oriental Litèrature, vol. i.]—Am. Ed.