answers, cognostine hos versus? Ac memoriter. Num his duae Bacchides habitant? Atque ambae sorores, i. e., yes, and that, &c. Ac is the same as atque, but being an abridged form, it loses somewhat of its power in connecting single words; but it retains that power which puts the things connected by it on an equality, and its use alternates with that of et; it is preferred in subdivisions, whereas the main propositions are connected by et; e. g., Cic., in Verr., v., 15, Cur tibi fasces ac secures, et tantam vim imperii tantaque ornamenta data censes? Divin., 12, Difficile est tantam causam et diligentia consequi, et memoria complecti, et oratione expromere, et voce ac viribus

sustinere.

[ 334.] Neque is formed from the ancient negative particle and que, and is used for et non. Et non itself is used when the whole proposition is affirmative, and only one idea or one word in it is to be negatived; e. g., Cic., Brut., 91, Athenis apud Demetrium Syrum, veterem et non ignobilem dicendi magistrum, exerceri solebam; in Verr., i., 1, patior et non moleste fero; de Orat., iii., 36, videris mihi aliud quiddam et non id quod suscepisti disputasse, and when our "and not" is used for "and not rather," to correct an improper supposition; e. g., Cic., in Verr., i., 31, si quam Rubrius injuriam suo nomine ac nou impulsu tuo fecisset. See § 781. Et non is, besides, found in the second part of a proposition when et precedes, but neque may be and frequently is used for et non in this case; e. g., Cic., ad Fam., xiii., 23, Manlius et semper me coluit, et a studiis nostris non abhorret ; ad Átt, ii., 4, id et nobis erit perjucundum, et tibi non sane devium. Nec (neque) non is not used in classical prose in quite the same way as et to connect nouns, but only to join propositions together (see Ruhnken on Vell. Pat., ii., 95), and the two words are separated; e. g., Nepos, Att., 13, Nemo Attico minus fuit aedificator, neque tamen non imprimis bene habitavit. Cicero several times uses nec vero non, and the like; but in Varro and later writers, such as Quintilian, nec non are not separated, and are in all essential points equivalent to et.

[ 335.] Etiam and quoque are in so far different in their meaning, that etiam, in the first place, has a wider extent than quoque, for it contains also the idea of our "even;" and, secondly, etiam adds a new circumstance, whereas quoque denotes the addition of a thing of a similar kind. Hence etiam is properly used to connect propositions. This difference seems to be correctly expressed in stating that etiam is "and farther," and quoque "and so, also." As in this manner quoque refers to a single word, it always follows that word etiam, in similar cases, is usually placed before it, but when it connects propositions its place is arbitrary. Et, too, is sometimes used in the sense of "also," in classical prose; e. g., Curt., iii., 31, non errasti, mater, nam et hic Alexander est; Cic., de Legg., ii, 16, quod et nunc multis in fanis fit, for nunc quoque; in Verr., iv., 61, simul et verebar; and v., 1, simul et de illo vulnere-multa dixit; and often non modosed et; e. g., Cic., in Verr., i., 1, non modo Romae, sed et apud exteras nationes; Nepos, Thrasyb., 1, non solum princeps, sed et solus bellum indixit. (See Bremi's remark on this passage, who states that sed et is not merely "but also," but always "but even.") But passages of this kind are not very numerous, and not always certain, for the MSS. usually have etiam, so that this use of et in prose (for poets cannot be taken into account) must at least be very much limited, and it should not be used to that extent in which modern Latinists apply it.

[9336.] The disjunctive conjunctions differ thus far, that aut indicates a difference of the object, and vel a difference of expression. Vel* is connected with the verb velle (vel-vel, will you thus, or will you thus?), and the single vel is used by Cicero only to correct a preceding expression, com monly combined with dicam, or potius, or etiam; e. g., peteres vel potius rogares; stuporem hominis vel dicam pecudis videte (Philip, ii., 12); laudenda est vel etiam amanda (p. Planc., 9); it very rarely occurs without su Jan

+ [Compare Crombie's Gymnasium, vol. i., p. 211.]-Am. Ed.

Y

'addition, but even then its meaning is corrective; e. g., Tusc., ii., 20, sum mum bonum a virtute profectum, vel (or rather) in ipsa virtute positum; de Nat. Deor., ii., 15, in ardore coelesti, qui aether vel coelum nominatur, where it like wise denotes not so much the equivalence of the terms, as the preference which is to be given to the Latin word. (Concerning the use of vel to de note an increase, see § 108 and 734, where, also, its signification of “for example,” velut, is explained. Both these significations are derivable from what has here been said.) From this in later, though still good prose, arose the use of vel in the sense of "or," that is, that in point of fact one thing is equal to another, a meaning which ve, in connecting single words, has even in Cicero; e. g., Philip., v. 19, Consules alter ambove faciant, that is, in point of fact, it is the same whether both consuls or only one of them do a thing; Top., 5, Esse ea dico, quae cerni tangive possunt, that is, either of the two is sufficient. Sive either retains the meaning of the conjunction si (which is commonly the case), and is then the same as vel si, or it 'oses it by an ellipsis (perhaps of dicere mavis), and is then the same as vel, denoting a difference of name, as in Quintilian, vocabulum sive appellatio; Cic., regie seu potius tyrannice. The form seu is used by Cicero very rarely, and almost exclusively in the combination seu potius; but in poetry and later prose it occurs frequently.

[§ 337.] The disjunctive conjunctions aut and ve serve to continue the negation in negative sentences, where we use "nor;" e. g., Verres non Honori aut Virtuti vota debebat, sed Veneri et Cupidini; and we may say, also, non Honori neque Virtuti, and in other cases we might use ve, analogous to the affirmative que. See Ruhnken on Vell. Pat., ii., 45, and the commentators on Tacit., Ann., i., 32, in fin. Examples: Cic., p. Flacc., 5, Itaque non optimus quisque nec gravissimus, sed impudentissimus loquacissi musque deligitur; Horat., Serm., i., 9, 31, Hunc nec hosticus auferet ensis, nec laterum dolor aut tarda podagra; ibid., i., 4, 73, Nec recito cuiquam nisi amicis non ubivis coramve quibuslibet; Cic., ad Fam., v., 13, Nullum membrum reip reperies, quod non fractum debilitatumve sit; and in negative questions, Cic. Philip., v., 5, Num leges nostras moresve novit? in Verr., v., 13, Quid me attinet dicere aut conjungere cum istius flagitio cujusquam praeterea dedecus? 0! after comparatives, Cic., p. Mur., 29, Accessit istuc doctrina non moderata nec mitis, sed paulo asperior et durior, quam veritas aut natura patiatur. It is only in those cases in which both words are to be united into one idea that a copulative conjunction is used; e. g., Cic., in Verr., iii., 86, nummos_nor exarat arator, non aratro ac manu quaerit. Comp. the longer passage in Cic. De Nat. Deor., ii., 62, in fin.

[338.] The Latin language is fond of doubling the conjunctions of this kind, whereby words and propositions are more emphatically brought un der one general idea. The English "as well as" is expressed by et-et, which is of very common occurrence;

et-que occurs not unfrequently in late writers, in Cicero by way of exception only;

que et connects single words, but not in Cicero ;

que-que is found only in poetry.

The only prose writer who uses it is Sallust, Cat., 9, seque remque publicam curabant; Jug., 10, meque regnumque meum gloria honoravisti; but it is not uncommon in the case of the conjunction being appended to the relative pronoun; e. g., quique exissent, quique ibi mansissent; captivi, quique Campanorum, quique Hannibalis militum erant, in Livy; or junctis exercitibus, quique sub Caesare fuerant, quique ad eum venerant, in Velleius. The latest critics have removed similar passages from the works of Cicero; see the com. ment. on de Urat., i., 26, and de Fin., v., 21; noctesque diesque, in de Fin., i., 16, is an allusion to a passage in a poem. Negative propositions are connected in English by "neither-nor," and in Latin by

Propositions, one of which is negative and the other affirmative, 'on the one hand, but not on the other," or "not on the one hand, but on the other," are connected by

et-neque (nec) both of very frequent occurrence.
neque (nec)-et

nec (neque)-que, occurs occasionally.

[§ 339.] Our "either-or," is expressed by aut-aut, denoting an oppo sition between two things, one of which excludes the other, or by vel-vel denoting that the opposition between two things is immaterial in respect of the result, so that the one need not exclude the other. E. g., Catiline, in Sallust, says to his comrades, vel imperatore vel milite me utimini, that is. it is indifferent to me in which capacity you may make use of me, only do make use of me. A similar idea is described more in detail by Ter ence, Eun., ii., 3, 28, Hanc tu mihi vel vi, vel clam, vel precario fac tradas. mea nihil refert, dum potiar modo; i. e., you may effect it even in a fourth way, if you like. Sive-sive is the same as vel si-vel si, and therefore transfers the meaning of vel-vel to the cases in which it is applied; e. g.. Cic., Illo loco libentissime soleo uti, sive quid mecum cogito, sive aliquid scribi aut lego. If there is no verb, and nouns only are mentioned in opposition to each other, an uncertainty is expressed as to how a thing is to be called; e. g., Cic., Tusc., ii., 14, Cretum leges, quas sive Juppiter sive Minos sanxit, laboribus erudiunt juventutem, i. e., I do not know whether I am to say Juppiter or Minos; ad Quint. Frat., i., 2, His in rebus si apud te plus auctoritas mea, quam tua sive natura paulo acrior, sive quaedam dulcedo ira cundiae, sive dicendi sal facetiaeque valuissent, nihil sane esset, quod nos poe niteret.

[§ 340.] 2. The following express a comparison, “as," "like," "than as if" (conjunctiones comparativae); ut or uti, sicut, velut, prout, praeut, the poetical ceu, quam, tam quam (with and without si), quasi, ut si, ac si, together with ac and atque, when they signify “as.”

Note.-Ac and atque are used in the sense of "as," or "than," after the adverbs and adjectives which denote similarity or dissimilarity: aeque. juxta, par and pariter, perinde and proinde, pro eo, similis, dissimilis and si militer, talis, totidem, alius and aliter, contra, secus, contrarius; e. g., non aliter scribo ac sentio; aliud mihi ac tibi videtur; saepe aliud fit atque existimamus ; simile fecit atque alii; cum totidem navibus rediit atque erat profectus. Quam after these words (as in Tacit., Ann., vi., 30, perinde se quam Tiberium falli potuisse) is not often used, except in the case of a negative parti cle being joined with alius; e. g., Cicero, virtus nihil aliud est, quam in se perfecta et ad summum perducta natura, where nisi might be used instead of quam. Respecting proinde ac, instead of the more frequent perinde ac, see above, § 282. Et and que do not occur in this connexion like ac and atque; and wherever this might appear to be the case, from the position of the words, as in Sallust, juxta bonos et malos interficere; suae hostiumque vitae juxta pepercerant; and in Cicero, nisi aeque amicos et nosmetipsos diligimus, the et and que retain their original signification "and;" but where the words compared are separated, as in reip. juxta ac sibi consuluerunt; or where propositions are compared, as in Cic., de Fin., iv., 12, similem habeat vultum ac si ampullam perdidisset, the ac or ut has justly been restored in the passages in which formerly et was read.

Ac is used for quam, after comparatives in poetry, in Horace generally, and in a few passages, also, of late prose writers; but never in Cicero; e. g., Horat., Epod., XV., 5, artius atque hedera; Serm. i., 2, 22, ut non se pejus cruciaverit atque hic; i., 10, 34., In silvam non ligna feras insanius ac si, &c.

[§ 341.] 3. The following express a concession with the general signification "although" (conjunctiones conces

sivae); etsi, etiamsi, tametsi (or tamenetsi), quamquam, quamvis, quantumvis, quamlibet, licet, together with ut in the sense of "even if" or "although, and диит, when it signifies "although," which is not unfrequently the case. Note.-Those particles which signify "yet," especially tamen, form the correlatives of the concessive conjunctions; e. g., ut desint vires, tamen est laudanda voluntas. Tametsi is a combination of the two correlatives; and in its application we not unfrequently meet with a repetition of the same particle; e. g., Cic., tametsi vicisse debeo, tamen de meo jure decedam; tametsi enim verissimum esse intelligebam, tamen credibile fore non arbitrabar. The adverb quidem also belongs to this class of conjunctions when it is used to connect propositions, and is followed by sed. See § 278.

A difference in the use of these conjunctions might be observed: some might be used to denote real concessions, and others to denote such as are merely conceived or imagined; and this would, at the same time, determine their construction, either the indicative or the subjunctive. But such a difference is clearly perceptible only between quamquam and quamvis. (See § 574.) We shall here add only the remark, that quamquam has a peculiar place in absolute sentences, referring to something preceding, but limiting and partly nullifying it; e. g., Cic., in Cat., i., 9, Quamquam quid loquor? Yet why do I speak? p. Muren., 38, in fin., quamquam hujusce rei potestas omnis in vobis sita est, judices; that is, and yet, judges, why should I say more? for surely you have the decision entirely in your own hands.

[§ 342.] 4. The following express a condition, the fundamental signification being "if" (conjunctiones condicionales); si, sin, nisi or ni, simodo, dummodo, if only, if but (for which dum and modo are also used alone), dummodo ne, or simply modo ne or dumne.

Note. In order to indicate the connexion with a preceding proposition, the relative pronoun quod (which, however, loses its signification as a pro noun) is frequently put before si, and sometimes, also, before nisi and etsi, so that quodsi may be regarded as one word. Comp. § 806.

Sin signifies "if however," and therefore stands for si autem or si vero; not unfrequently, however, autem is added, and sometimes vero (sin vero in Columella, vii., 3, and Justin).

[ 343.] Ni and nisi have the same meaning, except that ni is especially applied in judicial sponsiones; e. g., centum dare spondeo, ni dixisti, &c. Instead of nisi, we sometimes find the form nisi si. Both particles limit a statement by introducing an exception, and thus differ from si non, which introduces a negative case, for si alone has the character of a conjunction, and non, the negative particle, belongs to the verb or some other word of the proposition. It is often immaterial whether nisi or sinon is used; e. g., Nep. Con., 2, fuit apertum, si Conon non fuisset, Agesilaum Asiam Tauro tenus regi fuisse erepturum; and the same author, Ages., 6, says, talem se imperatorem praebuit, ut omnibus apparuerit nisi ille fuisset, Spartam futuram non fuisse. And thus Cicero, Cat., Maj., 6, might have said, memoria minuitur, si eam non exerceas, instead of nisi eam exerceas; and nisi, on the other hand, might have been used instead of si non, in Cic., in Verr., iii., 18, glebam commosset in agro decumano Siciliae nemo, si Metellus hanc epistolam non misis set. But the difference is nevertheless essential; e. g., if I say impune erit, si pecuniam promissam non dederitis, I mean to express that, in this case, the ordinary punishment will not be inflicted; but if I say, impune erit, nisi pe cuniam dederitis, the meaning is, "it shall remain unpunished, except in the case of your having paid the money;" which implies, "but you shall be punished if you have paid the money." Si non, therefore, can be used only when one of the sentences is not complete; as in Horace, Quo mihi

fortunam, si non conceditur uti? What is the good of having property, if I am not allowed to make use of it? If we express the former sentence by nullius pretii fortunae sunt, we may continue in the form of an exception, nisi concedatur is uti, or in the form of a negative case, si non concedatur uti. Si non is farther used only when single words are opposed to one another, as is particularly frequent in such expressions as dolorem, si non potero frangere, occultabo; desiderium amicorum, si non aequo animo, at forti feras; cum spe, si non optima, at aliqua tamen vivere. In this case si minus may be used instead of si non; e. g, Tu si minus ad nos, nos accurremus ad te. If after an affirmative proposition its negative opposite is added without a verb, our "but if not" is commonly expressed (in prose) by si (or sin) minus, sin aliter; e. g., Cic., in Cat., i., 5, educ tecum etiam omnes tuos; si minus, quam plurimos; de Orat., ii., 75, omnis cura mea solet in hoc versari semper, si pos sim, ut boni aliquid efficiam; sin id minus, ut certe nequid mali; but rarely by si non, which occurs in Cicero only once (ad Fam., vii., 3, in fin.).

[§ 344.] 5. The following express a conclusion or inference with the general signification of "therefore;" consequently (conjunctiones conclusivae); ergo, igitur, itaque, eo, ideo, iccirco, proinde, propterea, and the relative conjunctions, signifying "wherefore;" quapropter, quare, quamobrem, quocirca, unde.

Note.-Ergo and igitur denote a logical inference, like 'therefore." Itaque expresses the relation of cause in facts; it properly signifies "and thus," in which sense it not unfrequently occurs; e. g., itaque fecit. Re specting its accent, see § 32. Ideo, iccirco, and propterea express the agree ment between intention and action, and may be rendered by on this account." Eo is more frequently an adverb of place, "thither;" but it is found in several passages of Cicero in the sense of "on this account," or "for this purpose;" e. g., in Verr., i. 14, ut hoc pacto rationem referre liceret, eo Sullanus repente factus est; Liv., ii., 48, muris se tenebant, eo nulla pugna memorabilis fuit. Proinde, in the sense of "consequently," is not to be confounded with perinde; both words, however, are used in the sense of "like," so that we cannot venture to adopt the one to the exclusion of the other. (See 282.) But as we are speaking here of conclusive conjunctions, we have to consider only proinde, which implies an exhortation; e. g., Cicero, Proinde, si sapis, vide quid tibi faciendum sit; and so, also, in other writers; as, proinde fac magno animo sis, "consequently, be of good courage!" Unde is properly an adverb, "whence," but is used also as a conjunction in a similar sense, alluding to a starting point. Hinc and inde cannot properly be considered as conjunctions, as they retain their real signification of "hence." But adeo may be classed among the conjunctions, since the authors of the silver age use it as denoting a general inference from what precedes, like our so that," or simply "so;" e. g., Quintil., i., 12, 7, Adeo facilius est multa facere quam diu.

[§ 345.] 6. The following express a cause, or reason, with the demonstrative meaning of "for," and the relative of "because" (conjunctiones causales): nam, namque, enim, etenim, quia, quod, quoniam, quippe, quum, quando, quandoquidem, siquidem. The adverbs nimirum, nempe, scilicet, and videlicet are likewise used to connect propo sitions.

Note.-Between nam and enim there is this practical difference, that nam is used at the beginning of a proposition, and enim after the first or second word of a proposition. The difference in meaning seems to con.