Assimilation of the Glottis position appears in the change from [s] to [z], between vowels, as in [roizǝ]. Voiced stops become voiceless before voiceless consonants: [gapst, gaipt] ([gaibst, ga:bt]) (14).-Usually, initial voiced stops are voiceless, when a closely connected preceding word or syllable (especially an article or prefix) ends with a voiceless consonant: [dər bax - das buix, bədɛŋkən, Pausdeŋkən, Pentekǝn].

sonorousness.

54. Syllables. Speech sounds are grouped in words and syllables. The term 'word' has no meaning in phonetics—a word is a grammatical, logical and psychological structure. The phonetic unit is the syllable. An entirely adequate definition of this term has not been given as yet; the following description covers it approximately: A syllable is a phonetic unit which is determined by a relative maximum of sonorousness, and separated from each surrounding unit by a relative minimum of The term 'sonorous' has been explained in section 25; a voiced sound is sonorous in direct proportion to the free space in the mouth cavity in which the air vibrates. Therefore, the sonorousness of voiced sounds shows the following gradation: low vowels (greatest), mid vowels, high vowels, 'sonorous sounds' proper, nasals, voiced spirants, voiced stops (least); voiceless sounds, strictly speaking, do not possess any sonority at all, but the element of time makes spirants more forceful, as far as their position in a syllable is concerned, than stops. The most natural and frequent element of highest sonority in a syllable is a vowel; choosing, arbitrarily, the figures 9 to 1 for the nine classes of sounds arranged above according to their sonority, we could accept the following equations: [ta, tan, tanǝ]=1:9, 1:9:5, 1:9:5:(8). The figure 5, in the last of these expressions,

represents a relative minimum, and, therefore, the beginning of a new syllable. Jespersen uses the following diagram to indicate the differences of sonority (the arrangement of figures differs slightly in detail but not in principle):

,,Ich mache hier den Versuch, die Sonoritätsverhältnisse bei einer Reihe von Lautverbindungen, den Worten: sprengst, Tante, Attentat,1 keine, graphisch darzustellen:

1 Ohne Vokal zwischen t und n, die Zunge in derselben Stellung vom ersten t durch n zu t." (Elementarbuch, S. 146.)

We see from these instances that [n] assumes a different position in different words. In [kaenǝ]-1:9:8:5: (8), it is a relative minimum, beginning a new syllable; in [Patntart]1:9:1:5:1:9:1, it is a relative maximum, of the same syllabic value as a vowel; and in [tantǝ] -1:9:5:1:(8), it marks the transition from the maximum to the minimum of sonority in the same way as does [e] in [kaenǝ]-1:9:8:5:(8). Its function in the word [Patṇtart] is often called 'vocalic,' but should rather be called 'syllabic.' The liquids and nasals are frequently found in syllabic function - compare words like German [handļtə], English [midlmæn], Czech čtvrtku=[tSvṛtku]. Even a voiceless spirant may now and then have syllabic function, e.g., in interjections like [pst].

NOTE. Where it is necessary to indicate syllabic functionwhich is rarely the case - this book does so by a dot below the letter, as above. Philological works generally use a small circle, but in a book combining phonetics and historical grammar, this would be confusing since the same diacritic mark indicates the voiceless pronunciation of sounds that are usually voiced (see 14, 15, 18, etc.).

If we call [e] in [kaenǝ] a 'diphthongal element' namely, an element of transition from a sonorous maximum to a sonorous minimum, the same term must be admissible, and, as a matter of fact, is used in philology, for [n] in [tantə], [r] in [verfən], [1] in [helfən]. Compare II, 17.

55. Quantity. German consonants are practically always short, at least in comparison with English consonants. This must be observed especially strictly in the case of final m, n, ng, l, r, which in English are long after short vowels. The teacher must insist on short final consonants (and short vowels) in words like Kamm, kann, lang, soll, Herr.

The quantity of German vowels underwent a radical change at the end of the Middle High German period (II, 41), and is, to a certain extent, still changing. It is not yet possible to formulate definite rules, but the general tendency is this, that vowels are long if they are accented, and followed by not more than one consonant. The details are of a strictly orthoepic character (see 1), and Viëtor's Aussprachewörterbuch should be referred to in all doubtful cases.

56. Stress. The linguistic factor generally termed 'accent' can be of a twofold character: we distinguish musical accent or pitch, and dynamic accent or stress. Stress and pitch are not diametrically opposed to each other, but merely indicate a predominance of one of two

elements, namely, of an increased tension of the vocal chords, and of an increased force of expiration. An 'accented' syllable is, generally speaking, not only higher in pitch on account of the tension of the vocal chords, but also stronger in force, on account of a greater activity of the lungs. In the Romance and most of the Slavic languages, the prevailing element is pitch, in the Germanic languages, in general, stress-in German decidedly so.

German stress is considerably stronger than English stress and must be practised as such. American students are frequently inclined to use a rather strong secondary stress in the third syllables of such words as wanderte, Lehrerin, Lehrerinnen. This must be counteracted by suitable imitative exercises.

The place of accent in German, and in those English words that are of Saxon origin, is fixed according to logical principles, i.e., the most important syllable of the word, from the standpoint of meaning, is strest. In general, this is the first syllable. The apparent exception concerning inseparable prefixes is well-known (vernehmen : aufnehmen).

57. Pitch. In standard German, the syllable of greatest stress in a word is almost always also marked by the highest pitch. Dialects show considerable variation from this principle. The physiological cause of higher or lower pitch is the greater or lesser tension of the vocal chords, and this difference appears not only in single words, but in the 'intonation' of the whole sentence as well. While, on the whole, American English and German intonation do not differ very materially, the difference is considerable enough to deserve special attention on the part of the teacher of German. Rules of any kind

are of little avail in this respect, but expressive reading on the part of the teacher, and conscious, careful repetition, sentence by sentence, by the pupil, will soon bear fruit.

The best information concerning orthoepic details of stress and pitch is found in Hempl's German Orthography and Phonology, a book which is strongly recommended to all teachers of German.