ously for the former, who was obliged to submit in 943. In 961 Otho the Great, emperor of Germany, invaded Italy with a powerful army against Berengarius III., and, marching to Rome, received the imperial crown from the hands of the pope. In 964 he erected Capua into a principality, and received homage from the other princes of Lombardy. After various hostilities a treaty was concluded, and the young princess Theophania married to Otho's son, afterwards emperor. All this time the Saracens continued their incursions, and the Greeks had gained ground so much, that they were now in possession of two-thirds of the kingdom of Naples; but in 1002 or 1003, the Normans began to be remarkable in Italy. They had, about a century before, embraced Christianity, and become very zealous in all the superstitions then practised. They were particularly zealous in visiting sacred places, especially Rome, and the holy sepulchre at Jerusalem; and, being of a very martial disposition, they forced through great bodies of Greeks and Saracens who opposed their passage. About this time 100 of these Normans, returning from Jerusalem by sea, lanced at Salerno, in the habit of pilgrims, where they were honorably received by Guimarius. During their residence at Salerno, a great body of Saracens landed, and invested the city. Guimarius, not being in a condition to oppose the invaders by force, was preparing to pay them a large sum of money, when the Normans proposed to attack them; and, having got arms and horses, they engaged the infidels with such bravery, that they entirely defeated them, and obliged them to fly to their ships. By this victory Guimarius was filled with such admiration of the valor of these strangers, that he entreated them to remain in his country; offering them lands and the most honorable employments; but not being able to prevail with them to stay in Italy, or even accept of his presents, at their departure he sent home ambassadors with them to Normandy, in vessels loaded with exquisite fruits, rich furniture for horses, &c., to allure others of the valiant Normans to Italy. This encouraged a Norman chief, named Osmond Drengot, to settle in Italy, about 1015. In the mean time the city of Bari had revolted from the Greeks, and chosen one Mello for their leader, whose wife and children happened soon after to fall into the hands of their enemies, and were sent prisoners to Constantinople. No sooner, therefore, did Mello hear of the arrival of these adventurers, thau he engaged them to assist him; and, having drawn together a considerable army, defeated the Greeks with great slaughter, and obliged them to abandon their camp. In this engagement the Normans distinguished themselves, and the news of their success soon brought from Normandy an innumerable multitude of their countrymen, with their wives and children. By this reinforcement, Mello gained two other victories, took many towns, and obliged the Greeks to abandon a large territory; but, in 1019, they were utterly defeated, and every thing recovered by the Greeks. The Greek general Bajanus, continued to go on with such surprising success, that he almost entirely re-established the affairs VOL. XV.-PART 2.

of his countrymen in Italy, and made a distinct province of the western part of Puglia, which he called Capitanata. His great progress at last alarmed the emperor of Germany; and, in 1027, Pandulphus, prince of Capua, made himself master of Naples; but was obliged to leave it in 1030, by the Normans, who built the city of Aversa, which was erected into a county. In consequence of this good fortune, great numbers of Norman adventurers migrated into Italy; among whom were William, Drogo, and Umbert, three sons of Tancred, duke of Hauteville; from whose posterity those princes were descended, who conquered the island of Sicily from the Saracens, and thus completed the present kingdom of Naples.

In 1040 the Greek emperor Michael Paleologus, to secure the affection of his fickle subjects, undertook the conquest of Italy from the Saracens, and for that purpose sent a general named Michael Maniacus into Sicily. This commander, hearing of the great reputation of the Normans, sent to Guimarius, prince of Salerno, intreating him to grant him some of those warriors. The prince, to encourage the Normans to engage in the expedition, promised them some additional rewards besides the emperor's pay. William, Drogo, and Umbert, accordingly marched from Salerno with 300 of their countrymen; and, passing over into Sicily, distinguished themselves remarkably in the conquest of that island. Maniacus acknowledged that the recovery of Messina was chiefly owing to their valor; and William, with his Normans, gained a complete victory over the Saracens before Syracuse, where he killed the governor in single combat. Maniacus made himself master of Syracuse, and almost entirely reduced the whole island; but, being accused of treason, was next year carrie prisoner to Constantinople. His successor Doceanus quickly lost the whole island except Messina, and treated his Norman auxiliaries with the utinost contempt. He would not allow them any share of the booty; and even caused one Ardoin, a noble Lombard, an associate and interpreter of the Normans, to be whipped round the camp, because he had refused to part with the horse of a Saracen whom he had slain in single combat. The consequences of this tyrannical behaviour were fatal to the Greeks. Ardoin soon after obtained leave to return to Italy, under pretence of a vow, and all the Normans embarked at night along with him; but, instead of going to Rome, Ardoin went immediately to Aversa, where he persuaded count Rainulphus, sovereign of that province, to join with him in attacking the Greek provinces in Italy. Rainulphus approved of the scheme, and raised 300 soldiers, whom he sent under twelve officers, to join the other Normans under the sons of Tancred; and made an agreement with Ardoin that the conquests should be equally divided among the chief leaders. Their first enterprise was the reduction of Melfis, one of the strongest cities in Puglia, which surrendered; and they increased its fortifications so much, that it became impregnable. Soon after this tney took Venosa, Ascoli, and Lavello, with little opposition. Doceanus, alarmed at the rapidity of their conquests, im

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mediately left Sicily, and marched with his army into Puglia, where he attacked the invaders near the river Oliviento; but, after a fierce engagement, he was obliged to retire with considerable loss. The Greeks were soon after defeated a second time at Cannæ; and in a third engage ment, near Ofanto, the army of Doceanus was entirely routed, and himself obliged to fly to Bari. On this he was ordered to return to his command in Sicily, and another general was sent with an army into Puglia; but he had no better success, for his army was defeated in an engagement with the Normans, and himself taken prisoner. Atenulphus, brother to one of the princes of Benevento, on whom the Normans had conferred the chief command, set at liberty the captive general without consulting them, on receiving from him a considerable sum of money. With this the Normans were so much displeased that they deprived Atenulphus of his command, and bestowed it on Argyrus, son to the late Mello, who had escaped from Constantinople, and now assumed the title of duke and prince of Italy. Before this also, Maniacus had returned to Italy; and, to strike terror into the revolted cities, had executed a number of people of all ages and sexes with great inhumanity. Soon after this he openly rebelled against the Greek emperor Constantine XI., and prevailed upon his own army to proclaim him emperor, beginning hostilities immediately against the Greek cities. But Argyrus took Giovenazzo, and besieged Trani, and soon after besieged Maniacus himself in Tarento, who, being afraid of falling into the hands of the Normans, fled to Otranto, and thence to Bulgaria, where, being defeated by one of the emperor's generals, he was taken prisoner and beheaded. The Normans, having now conquered the greatest part of Puglia, proceeded to make a division of their conquest, in which, after each commander had got his share, the city of Melfis was left common to all, and appropriated as a place for assembling to consult about the most important affairs of the nation. Argyrus alone was neglected in this division; but he, having gained the favor of the emperor by expelling Maniacus from Italy, was by him created duke of Bari, on purpose to check the power of the Normans, with the title of prince and duke of Puglia. The Normans, however, were too powerful, and behaved with great insolence to the neighbouring princes; but as they could not be expelled by force, and were confirmed in their conquests by Henry II., emperor of Germany in 1047, the Greek emperor attempted to get rid of them, by sending Argyrus with large sums of money to bribe them to enter into his service against the Persians. But they replied, that they were resolved not to leave Italy unless they were expelled; upon which Argyrus bribed the Puglians to assassinate these invaders. This brought on a massacre, in which greater numbers of Normans perished than had fallen in all the late wars. Argyrus attempted to take advantage of the confusion produced by it, but was defeated; after which he had recourse to pope Leo, beseeching him to deliver Italy from these cruel tyrants; but the pope himself was defeated and taken prisoner; and, in conse

quence of the respec. showed him by the Normans, granted them all the conquests they had made or should make in Calabria and Sicily.

Soon after this the Norman power became extremely formidable; the famous Robert Guiscard ascended the throne in 1056. He made great progress in the conquest of Calabria, and reduced most of the cities which held for the Greeks in these parts. About the same time the counts of Capua were expelled from their territory; and the abbot Desiderius mentions his having seen the children of Landulphus V., the last count, begging. The pope, alarmed by these conquests, excommunicated the Normans in a body, pretending that they had seized some of the territories belonging to the church; but, by the submission of Robert, he not only was persuaded to take off the sentence of excommunication, but to invest him with the provinces of Apulia, Calabria, and Sicily. After this he continued the war against the Greeks with great success. In 1071, in conjunction with his brother Roger, he conquered Sicily, and gave the investiture of the island to him, with the title of count, reserving to himself only the half of Palermo, Messina, and the valley of Demona. The like success attended his arms against Salerno in 1074; and in 1080 he received a second time the investiture of all his dominions. In 1081 he undertook an expedition against the Greeks; and, though the emperor was assisted by a Venetian fleet, Robert made himself master of Corfu, reduced Durazzo, and great part of Romania; insomuch that by the success of his arms, and his near approach to Constantinople, he struck a universal terror among the Greeks. But, while Robert was thus extending his conquests, he was alarmed by the news of a formidable rebellion in Italy, and that the emperor Henry had taken Rome, and shut up the pope in the castle of St. Angelo. Robert therefore, leaving the command of the army to his son Boemund, returned to Italy, where he dispersed the rebels, and released the pope, while his son gained a considerable victory over the Greeks. After this Robert made great preparations for another expedition into Greece, to second his son Boemund. Alexius Comnenus, who was declared emperor by the Greek army, being assisted by the Venetian fleet, endeavoured to oppose his passage, but was defeated, with the loss of many galleys. But a final stop was now put to his enterprises by his death, which happened in 1085. Though the power of the Normans was thus thoroughly established in Italy and Sicily, and though the prince of Benevento was in 1130 invested by the pope with the title of king of Sicily; yet, in consequence of the dissensions among themselves, they were obliged to submit to the emperor in 1195. By him the Sicilians were treated with so great cruelty, that the empress Constantia was induced to conspire against him in 1197, took him prisoner, and released him only on condition of his sending off his army immediately for the Holy Land. This was complied with; but the emperor did not long survive the reconciliation, being poisoned, as was supposed, by order of the empress. In 1254 the pope claimed the kingdom as a fief

devolved on the church, in consequence of a sentence of deposition pronounced against king Frederic at the council of Lyons; and in 1263 the kingdom was, in consequence of this right, conferred on Charles count of Anjou. After much contention and bloodshed, the French thus became masters of Sicily and Naples. Their government was insupportably tyrannical; and at the same time the haughtiness of their king so provoked the pope, that he resolved to humble him. Charles had resolved on an expedition against Constantinople, and for this purpose had fitted out a fleet of 100 galleys, thirty large ships, 200 transports, besides many other smaller vessels, on board of which he intended to embark 10,000 horse, and a numerous army of foot. This formidable armament greatly alarmed the emperor Michael Paleologus, for which reason he entered into a negociation with John Di Procida, a noble Salernitan, lord of the isle of Procida, in the bay of Naples, who had formed a scheme for a general revolt in the island of Sicily. John, though a nobleman, was also a physician, and had been counsellor to two former princes, and even to king Charles him. self; but being stripped of his estate by the king under pretence of treason, and his wife being debauched by the French, he retired to Constantia, queen of Arragon, where he was created a baron of the kingdom of Valencia by her husband king Peter, and lord of Luxen, Benizzano, and Palma. As he was greatly exasperated against the French, he employed many spies both in Puglia and Sicily; and, being informed that the Sicilians were totally disaffected to the French, he came to the island in disguise, and concerted a plan with the most powerful of the malcontents for a revolution in favor of Constantia, though she derived her right only as being the daughter of a former usurper named Manfred. Procida then set out for Constantinople, where, in some private conferences with the emperor, he persuaded him, that the most probable means of defeating Charles's scheme was by assisting the Spaniards and Sicilian malcontents. Paleologus accordingly granted him a large sum of money, and on his departure sent one of his secretaries along with him, who, landing in Sicily, had a conference with the chief conspirators. John, having received letters from them, disguised himself in the habit of a Franciscan, and went to Suriano near Rome. As he knew the enmity which subsisted between the pope and king Charles, he disclosed his design to his holiness, who readily entered into his measures, wrote to Peter to hasten his armament, promising him the investiture of the island as soon as he had taken possession of it; and, by refusing the assistance he had promised to Charles, obliged him to delay his expedition. In the beginning of 1280 Procida returned to Arragon, and, by showing the letters from the pope and Sicilian barons, prevailed on Peter to embark in his design, by assuring him of the assistance of Paleologus. The king of Arragon accordingly prepared a formidable fleet under pretence of invading Africa, and received 20,000 ducats from Charles, to assist him in his preparations. But, while John went on thus success

fully with his scheme, all his measures were in danger of being broke by the death of pope Nicholas. The new pope, Martin IV., was entirely in the interest of Charles, on whom, in 1281, he conferred the senatorial dignity of Rome. Procida, however, still resolved to prosecute his scheme; and, leaving Italy, had another conference with the conspirators in Sicily; after which he again went to Constantinople, and obtained from Paleologus 30,000 ounces of gold, with which he returned to Arragon. The death of Nicholas had damped the ardor of Peter; but, being urged by John, he again renewed his preparations; which alarmed the pope and the king of France: who advised Charles to guard against an invasion: but he neglected their advice, being wholly intent on his eastern expedition, and encouraged by a revolt which had happened in Greece. To facilitate his expedition, he prevailed on the pope to excommunicate the Greeks, on pretence that they had broken some of the articles of union concluded at the council of Lyons a few years before. Peter in the mean time continued his preparations with great diligence, intending to put to sea the following summer. Procida had returned to Palermo, to wait for a favorable opportunity of putting his design in execution, which was soon afforded him by the French. On Easter Monday, March 30th, 1282, the chief conspirators had assembled at Palermo; and, after dinner, both the Palermitans and French went in a grand procession to the church of Monreal, about three miles without the city. While they were sporting in the fields, a bride happened to pass by with her train, who being observed by one Drochet, a Frenchman, he ran to her, and began to use her rudely, under pretence of searching for arms. A young Sicilian, exasperated at this affront, stabbed him with his own sword; and, a tumult ensuing, 200 French were immediately murdered. The enraged populace then ran to the city, crying out, 'Let the French die;' and, without distinction of age or sex, slaughtered all of that nation they could find, even such as had fled to the churches. The conspirators then left Palermo, and excited the inhabitants to murder the French all over the island, excepting in Messina, which city at first refused to be concerned in the revolt. But, being invited by the Palermitans to throw off the French yoke, a few weeks after, the citizens in a' tumultuous manner destroyed some of the French: and pulling down the arms of king Charles, and erecting those of the city, chose one Baldwin for their governor, who saved the remaining French from the fury of the populace, and allowed them to transport themselves, with their wives and children, to Italy. The number murdered on this occasion is said to have been 8000.

Immediately after this massacre, the Sicilians offered their allegiance to Peter, king of Arragon; who accepted of the invitation, and landed with his forces at Trapani. Thence he went to Palermo, where he was crowned king of Sicily with great solemnity, and Charles left the island with precipitation. The day after he landed his army in Italy, the Arragonian fleet arrived, took twenty-nine of his galleys, and the next day

burnt eighty transports in presence of his army. Soon after this Charles sent an embassy to Peter, accusing him of perfidy, in invading his dominions in time of peace; and, according to some, challenged him at the same time to decide the matter by single combat: but Peter determined to employ more effectual means in support of his pretensions; and therefore pushed on his operations most vigorously, while his adversary trifled away his time: and thus he at last became master of the kingdom; which, however, he did not long enjoy, dying about the end of 1285. By his will, Peter left Arragon to his eldest son Alphonsus, and Sicily to James his other son, who was also to succeed to the kingdom of Arragon in case Alphonsus should die without male issue. Accordingly, James was solemnly crowned at Palermo, the 2d of February, 1286. In 1295, however, he deserted them, and tamely resigned up his right to Charles, son to him above mentioned. On his resignation the Sicilians conferred the crown upon his brother Frederick after which the war continued with great violence till 1303, when a peace was concluded, and the kingdoms of Naples and Sicily formally disjoined; Frederick being allowed to keep the latter, under the name of Trinacria; and Charles being confirmed in the possession of the former, which he quietly enjoyed till his death in 1309. Naples continued to be governed by its own kings till the beginning of the sixteenth century, when the kings of France and Spain contended for the sovereignty of it. Frederick, then king of Naples, resigned the sovereignty to Louis XII., on being created duke of Anjou, and receiving an annual pension of 30,000 ducats. But, in 1504, the French were defeated by the Spaniards, and obliged to evacuate the kingdom; and Louis, in 1505, renounced all pretensions to the crown, which has since remained almost constantly in the hands of the Spaniards. The government of the Spaniards proved no less oppressive to the Neapolitans than that of others had been. The kings of Spain set no bounds to their exactions, and of consequence the people were loaded with numerous and heavy taxes; the most indispensable necessaries of life not being exempted. In 1647 a new tax was laid on fruit; which the people looked upon as the most grievous oppression, the chief part of their subsistence, during the summer months, being fruit; which in Naples is very plentiful and delicious. The edict for collecting the new duty was no sooner published, than the people began to murmur in a tumultuous manner: and, when the viceroy came abroad, they surrounded his coach, bawling out to have their grievances redressed. They were encouraged in their sedition by the news that the citizens of Palermo had revolted on account of the imposition of new duties. The viceroy, therefore, apprehensive of greater disorders, began to think of taking off the tax; but, those who farmed the tax having bribed sóme of his favorites, he was persuaded not to abolish it. The indignation of the people was now greatly increased. The farmers of the revenue, and all those concerned in raising the taxes, had incurred the hatred and detestation of the people, particularly of Thomas Aniello, com

monly called Massaniello, a native of Amalsi, a fisherinan, whose wife, having been discovered in smuggling a small quantity of meal, was imprisoned, and condemned to pay a fine of 100 ducats. Massaniello, a few years before, had come to Naples from Amalsi, where his father had been a fisherman. At this time he was about twenty-four years of age, and the father of four children. He was of a middling stature, and an agreeable aspect; was distinguished for his boldness, activity, and integrity; and had great influence with his companions, by whom he was beloved and esteemed. As he was obliged even to sell his furniture to pay the heavy fine, he had conceived an implacable hatred against the farmers of the taxes, and was also moved with compassion for the miserable state of the city and kingdom. He, therefore. formed a design, with some of his companions. to raise a tumult in the market-place on the festival day of the Carmelites, usually celebratec about the middle of July, when between 50C and 600 youths entertain the people by a mock fight; one half-of them, in the character of Turks, defending a wooden castle, which is attacked and stormed by the other half in the character of Christians. Massaniello being appointed captain of one of these parties, and one Pione, who was privy to his design, commanding the other, for several weeks before the festival they were very diligent in reviewing and training their followers, who were armed with sticks and reeds but an unforeseen accident tempted them to begin their enterprise without waiting for the festival. On the 7th of July a dispute happening in the market place betwixt the tax-gatherers and some gardeners of Pozzuolo, who had brought some figs into the city, whether the buyer or seller should pay the duty; after the tumult had continued several hours, Massaniello, who was present with his company, excited the mob to pillage the office built in the market for receiving the duty, and to drive away the officers with stones. The elect of the people, who, by deciding against the gardeners, had increased the tumult, ran to the palace and informed the viceroy, who imprudently neglected all means of putting a stop to the commotion. Massaniello, in the mean time, being joined by great numbers of people, ordered his young troops to set fire to all the offices for the taxes through the city; which command being executed with despatch, he then conducted them directly to the palace, where the viceroy, instead of ordering his Spanish and German guards to disperse them, encouraged their insolence by timidly granting their demands. As they rushed into the palace in a furious manner, he escaped by a private door, and endeavoured to save himself in Castel del Ovo; but, being overtaken by the rioters in the streets, he was trampled upon by them, and pulled by the hair and whiskers. However, by throwing some handfuls of gold among them, he again escaped, and took sanctuary in a convent of Minims, where, being joined by the archbishop of Naples, cardinal Filomarini, and several nobles, by their advice he signed a billet, by which he abolished all taxes upon provisions. He likewise desired the cardinal to offer Massaniello a pension of