the efforts put forth to complete the structure, whose foundation had been laid in the preceding period. The following periods, too, are employed either in completing and adorning what was here constructed, or else in efforts to restore when not to demolish it, in the most wonderful succession and variation.

'This period, which we call the scholastic, in the widest sense of the word, may be subdivided into three shorter periods. 1. From John Damascenus to Anselm, Archbishop of Canterbury; during this period John Scotus Erigena takes the most prominent position in the West. 2. From Anselm to Gabriel Biel, the age of scholasticism properly so called, which may again be subdivided into three periods (its rise, ripeness, and decay); and, 3, from Gabriel Biel to Luther (the period of transition). But we prefer an arrangement which facilitates a general view of the subject, to such articulations. Mystical and scholastic tendencies alternately rule this period; even the forerunners of the Reformation adhered more or less to the one or the other of these tendencies, though they belong to the next period in the other half of their nature.

• We might have fixed upon the year 1521, in which the first edition of Melancthon's Loci Communes was published, or upon the year 1530, in which the Confession of Augsburg was drawn up, instead of the year 1517; but, for the sake of the internal connection of the events, we make our date agree with the normal epoch of ecclesiastical history, especially as the Theses of Luther were of importance in a doctrinal point of view. Inasmuch as the distinguishing principles of the different sections of the church are brought out very prominently in the Confessions of the age of the Reformation, the History of Doctrines naturally assumes the character of Symbolism; what may be called the statistics of the History of Doctrines, as has already been stated (comp. § 4). From the second half of the sixteenth century, the history again assumes the form of a progressive narrative; up to that time it has rather the character of a comparative sketch of opinions-a broad surface and not a process of growth. The age of Polemics, and that of Scholasticism, may be said to re-appear during this period, though in different forms; we also see various modifications of mysticism in opposition to one-sided rationalism. We might commence a new period with Calixt and Spener, if their peculiar opinions had then at all prevailed. What both of them wished to effect, from different points of view, shows itself in the sphere of doctrinal history in the period which we have adopted as the last.

A definite year can here least of all be given. The tendency to a dissolution of the old forms begins with the English deists as early as the close of the seventeenth century. In Germany the struggle with the established orthodoxy is prepared by Thomasius and the Pietists; both elements of opposition-the rationalistic and the pietistic-at first work together, but are separated after Wolf begins to teach philosophy in Halle. The negative, critical, and rationalistic tendency does not, however, become vigorous until the middle of the century; and hence many date the new period from 1750. But, in general, it is very perceptible that the bonds of strict symbolical orthodoxy began to be relaxed even in the first decennia of the cen

tury; this is manifest in the abolition of the Formula Consensus in Switzerland, and in the attempts at union in Germany; and also in the fact that it was more frequently asked, What are the conditions of a living Christianity? than, What are the differences in the confessions of faith In the period that preceded the Reformation, apologetic tendencies came first, and were followed by the polemic; now the order is reversed; we first have the polemic period of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, and then the apologetic of the eighteenth, in which the question was, whether Christianity is to be or not to be. None of these agencies are indeed isolated; and the nearer we come to the present times, the more varied and involved becomes the conflict. Thus we can subdivide this last period into three parts. The first, from Wolf to Kant, contains the struggles of a stiff and unwieldy dogmatism (in part, too, a supernaturalism on a deistic basis), with an undefined illuminatism (Aufklärung). The second, from Kant, strives to insure the predominance in science and the church of a rationalism, negative as to doctrine, and chiefly restricted to morals, in opposition to both the old and the new faith. In fine, the third period, most fitly dated from Schleiermacher, constantly looking at the real and vital questions about Christianity, brings into view the most diverse tendencies, partly reactionary to restore the old, partly idealizing and mediating, and again tearing down and building up all anew; and thus it is the introduction to a new period, for which history has as yet no name.

§ 13.

SOURCES OF THE HISTORY OF DOCTRINES.

a. Public Sources.

Everything may be considered as a source of the History of Doctrines, which gives sure expression to the religious belief of any given period. In the first rank stand the public confessions of faith or symbols (creeds) of the church;' in connection with them the acts of councils,' the decrees, edicts, circular letters, bulls, and breves of ecclesiastical superiors, whether clerical or secular, and, lastly, the catechisms, liturgies, and hymns, sanctioned by the church.

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8

Comp. § 4. The ancient creeds may be found in the Acts of Councils mentioned Note 2; the three creeds commonly called œcumenical (the Apostles' Creed, the Nicene, and the Athanasian) are also reprinted in the collections of Protestant symbols; comp. Ch. W. F. Walch, Bibliotheca Symbolica Vetus. Lemgoviæ, 1770, 8. Semler, J. S., Apparatus ad Libros Symbolicos Ecclesiæ Lutheranæ, Hal. 1755, 8. COLLECTIONS OF SYMBOLICAL BOOKS (they become important only since the fourth period): a) Of the Lutheran Church : Libri Symbolici Ecclesiæ Evangelicæ ad fidem opt. exempl. recens. J. A. H. Tittmann, Misn. 1817, '27. Libri Symbolici Ecclesiæ Evangelicæ, s. Concordia, rec. C. A. Hase, Lips. 1827, '87, '46. Die Symbolischen Bücher der Evang Luther. Kirche, von J. J. Müller, Stuttg. 1846. Libri Symbol. Eccl. Luth. ed.

F. Francke, Ed. stereotyp. Lips. 1847. Libri Symbol. Luth. ad edit. princ. etc. ed. H. A. G. Meyer, Gött. 1850. b) Of the Reformed: Corpus Libror. Symbolicor. qui in Ecclesia Reformatorum Auctoritatem publicam obtinuerunt, ed. J. Ch. W. Augusti, Elberf. 1828. Sammlung Symb. Bücher der ref. Kiche, von J. J. Mess. Neuwied, 1828, 30, 2 vols. 8. H. A. Niemeyer, Collectico Con. fessionum in Ecclesiis Reformatis Publicatarum, Lips. 1840, 8. Die Bekeuntnisschriften der Evangel. ref. Kirche, mit Einleitung, und Anmk. von E. G. A. Böckel, Leips. 1847. [Harmonia Confessionum Fidei Orthodoxarum et Reform. Ecclesiarum, ete. 4to. Genev. 1581: an English translation, Cambr. 1586, Lond. 1643. Corpus et Syntagma Confess. Fidei, ete. 4to. 1612, and Geneva 1654. Sylloge Confess. sub Tempus. Reform. Eccl. Oxon. 1801, 1827. The Harmony of Prot. Confess. of Faith, edited Rev. Peter Hall, 8vo. Lond. 1842. Butler's Historical and Literary Account of the Formularies, ete. 8vo. Lond. 1816.] c) of the Roman Cathol. Danz, Libri Symbolici Ecclesiæ RomanoCatholicæ, Vimar. 1835.-Streitwolf et Klener, Libri Symb. Eccl. Cathol. Gött. 1835. [Sacrosancti et Ecumenici. Cone Trid. Canones et Decreta, ed. W. Smets, Bielefeld, ed. 4, 1854. Canones et Decreta Conc. Trid. acced. declarationes ex Bullario Romano, edd. A. L. Richter et Fr., Schulze, Lips. 1853.] (Comp. the works mentioned § 16, Note 9.) d) of the Greek: E. T. Kimmel, Libri Symbolici Ecclesiæ Orientalis. Jen. 1843, 8. Append. adj. H. T. C. Weissenborn, 1849. (Comp. Pitzipios, l'Eglise Orientale de Rome.)

'ACTS OF COUNCILS: J. Merlin (Par. 1523, fol. Cöln. 1530, ii. Par. 1535). Grabbe (Cöln. 1508, f.). L. Surius, Col. 1577, fol. iv. The edition of Sixtus V. Venice, 1585, that of Binius (Severinus) Col. 1606, iv. f. Collectio Regia, Paris, 1644 (by Cardinal Richelieu) xxxvii. f. Phil. Labbeus and Gabr. Cossart, Par. 1671, '72, xvii. f. Balluzii (Stephan.) Nova Collectio Conciliorum, Par. 1683, f. (Suppl. Conc. Labbei) incomplete. Harduin, (Joh.), Conciliorum Collectio Regia Maxima, seu Acta Conciliorum et Epistolæ Decretales ac Constitutiones summorum Pontificum, græce et latine, ad Phil. Labbei et Gabr. Cossartii labores haud modica accessione facta et emendationibus pluribus additis Par. 1715, xi. (xii.) fol.-Nic. Coleti, S. S. Concilia ad regiam edit. exacta, etc. Venet. xxiii. with additions by Mansi vi. f. * Mansi (J. Dom.), Sacrorum Conciliorum Nova et Amplissima Collectio, Flor et Venet. 1759, sqq. xxxi. f. Comp. Ch. W. F. Walch, Entwurf einer vollständigen Geschichte der Kirchenversammlungen, Lpz. 1759. Fuchs, Bibliothek der Kirchenversammlungen des 4 und 5. Jahrhunderts, Lpz. 1788, 4 vols. Bibliotheca Ecclesiastica quam moderante D. Augusto Neander adornavit Herm. Theod. Bruns, I. (Canones Apostolorum et Concil. Sæcul. iv. v. vi. vii.) Pars. I. Berol. 1839. [D. Wilkins, Conc. Mag. Brit. et Hibern. Lond. 1727, 4 fol. Hefele, C. J., Conciliengeschichte, 3 8vo. 1855-9. E. H. Landon, Manual of Councils, 1846. W. A. Hammond, Definitions of Faith and Canons of Six Ecumenical Councils, New York ed. 1844. L. Howell, Synopsis Conciliorum, fol. 1708.] The so-called Apostolical Constitutions belong here for the ancient times: Constitutiones Apostol. Text. Græc. rerognovit Gulielm. Ueltzen. Sverini. 1853. [Cf. Bunsen's Hippolytus, vol. 3. The Didascalia or Apost. Const. of Abyssinian Church, by Thos. P. Platt, published by the Orient. Transl. Society, vol. xxxix. Beveridge,

Pandectæ Canonum ss. et Conciliorum ab Eccles. Græc. recept. etc. 2 fol. Oxon. 1672. De Lagarde, Constit. Apostolorum 8. Lpz. 1862.]

'Partly contained in the Acts of Councils.

a) DECREES OF CIVIL GOVERNMENTS EXERCISING AUTHORITY IN ECCLESISITICAL AFFAIRS (viz. emperors, kings, magistrates): Codex Theodosianus, c. perpetuis commentariis Iac. Gothofredi, etc. Edit. Nova in vi Tom. digesta, cura Ritteri, Lips. 1736.-Codex Justinianeus, edid. Spangenberg, 1797. Balluzii (Steph.) Collectio Capitularium Regum Francorum, etc. Par. 1780, ii. f. Corpus Juris Canonici (editions of J. H. Böhmer, 1747, and A. L. Richter, 1833). Codicis Gregoriani et Codicis Hermogeniani Fragmenta, ed G. Hänel, Bonn. 1837, 4to. Under this head come also the regulations concerning the Reformation, the agendas and the religious edicts of Protestant governments, which, at least formerly, were in a great measure based upon doctrinal principles. Em. Ludw. Richter, Die Evangelischen Kirchenordnungen des 16 Jahrh. Weimar, 1846, 4to.

b) PAPAL DECRETALS: Pontificum Romanorum a Clemente usque ad Leonem M. Epistolæ Genuinæ, cur. C. F. G. Schönemann, T. i. Gött. 1796, 8.—Bullarium Romanum a Leone M. usque ad Benedictum XIII. opus. ab. solutiss. Laërt. Cherubini, a D. Angelo Maria Cherubini al. illustratum et auctum et ad Ben. XIV. perductum, Luxemb. 1727, ss. xix. fol.—Bullarum, Privilegiorum et Diplomatum Roman. Pontif. amplissima Collect. opera et stud. Car. Cocquelines, Rom. 1739-44, xxviii. fol. [The Bullarium is continued by A. Spetia, 1835, sq. 9 tom. folio.] Eisenschmid. römisches Bullarium, oder Auszüge der merkwürdigsten päbstlichen Bullen, übersetzt und mit fortlaufenden Anmerkungen. Neustadt. 1831, 2 vols.

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• Catechisms become important only from the period of the Reformation, especially those of Luther, the Heidelberg, the Racovian, the Roman Catholic catechism, etc. Some of thein, e. g., those just mentioned, may be found in collections of symbolical books (note 1); others are separately published. Comp. Langemack, Historia Catechetica, Stralsund, 1729-33, iii. 1740, iv. J. S. Assemani, Codex Liturgieus Ecclesiæ Universe, Rom. 1749-66, xiii. 4. Renaudot (Eus.) Liturgiarum Orientalium Collectio, Paris, 1716, ii. f. L. A. Muratori, Liturgia Romana Vetus, Venet. 1748, ii. f. M. J. G Volbeding, Thesaurus Commentationum select. et antiq. et recent, etc. Tom ii. Lips. 1848. T. S. Mone, Lateinische u. griechische Messen, 2 bis 6 Jahr. Frankf. 1849. Compare the missals, breviaries, liturgies, etc. Augusti's Denkwürdigkeiten der christlichen Archäologie, vol. v. Gerbert, Vetus Liturgia Allemanica, Ulm, 1776, ii. 4. [H. A. Daniel, Codex Lit. Eccl. Univ. in Epitome redact. 4 vols. Lips. 1847-51. J. Pinius, Liturg. Ant. Hisp. Goth. etc. 2 fol. Rom. 1749. W. Palmer, Origines Liturg. or Antiq. of the Church of England, 2 8vo. 1845. J. M. Neale, Tetralogia Liturg. Lond. 1848. Eutaxia, or the Presbyterian Liturgies; Historical Sketches. New York, 1855. Bunsen, Analecta Ante-Nicaena. 3, 8vo. 1854.]

6 Rambach, Anthologie christlicher Gesänge aus allen Jahrhunderten der Kirche, Altona, 1816-22, iv. 8, and the numerous psalm and hymn-books. How much sacred songs have contributed to the spread of doctrinal opinions, may be seen from the example of Bardesanes [Gieseler, i. § 46, n. 2, p. 138], of the Arians, and in later times, of the Flagellants, the Hussites, etc.;

from the history of the sacred hymns of the Lutheran, and the sacred psalms of the Reformed church, the spiritual songs of Angelus Silesius, of the Pietists and Moravian brethren, and (in a negative point of view) from the dilutions found in many modern hymn-books. Comp. Augusti, De antiquissimis Hymnis et Carminibus Christianorum sacris in historia dogmatum. utiliter adhibendis, Jen. 1810, and De audiendis in Theologia poëtis, Vratisl. 1812-15. Hahn, A., Bardesanes Gnosticus, primus Syrorum Hymnologus, 1820-8. Buchegger, De Origine sacræ Christianorum Poëseos, Frib. 1827, 4. Hoffman, Dr. H., Geschichte des deutschen Kirchenliedes bis auf Luthers Zeit, Breslau, 1832. [J. M. Neale, Hymni Ecclesiæ e Brevariis, etc., Lond. 1851. Mohnike, hymnologische Forschungen, 4 Bde. 1855 sq. T. J. Mone, Lateinische Hymnen, 3 Bde. 1853 sq. Daniel, Thesaurus Hymnologicus, 5 Tom. 1856. Koch, Gesch. des Kirchenlieds. 4 Bde. 2d. ed. 1853.]

§ 14.

b. Private Sources.

Next in order after these public sources come private sources of the History of Doctrines. These are: 1. The works of the fathers, theologians, and ecclesiastical writers of all the Christian centuries ;' but in these we are to distinguish between scientific and strictly doctrinal works on the one hand, and practical (sermons) and occasional writings (letters, etc.) on the other. 2. The works of secular writers, e. g., the Christian philosophers and poets of any period.' 3. Lastly, the indefinite form of popular belief, which manifests itself in legends, proverbial sayings, and songs, and representations. of Christian art, viewed as memorials of certain religious views, may also be numbered among these secondary sources.*

1 Comp. § 5. Concerning the distinction (which is very relative) made between fathers, teachers, and ecclesiastical writers, see the introductions to the works on Patristics, e. g., Möhler, p. 17-19. The fathers of the first centuries are followed by the compilers, the scholastic and mystic divines of the middle ages, and these again by the Reformers and their opponents, the polemical writers of various sections of the church, and the later theologians in general. Their particular works will be referred to in their proper place. Works of a more general character are: Fabricii, J. G., Bibliotheca Ecclesiastica, Hamb. 1718, f. Cave, W., Scriptorum Ecclesiasticorum Historia litteraria, Lond. 1688, 91. Oxon. 1740, 43, Bas. 1749. C. Oudin, Comment. de Scriptoribus Ecclesiæ Antiquis, Lips. 1722, iii. L. El. Dupin, Nouvelle Bibliothèque des Auteurs Ecclésiastiques, Par. 1686-1714, xlvii. 8, [transl. by Wotton and Cotes, 3 fol. Dublin, 1733]. Bibliothèque des Auteurs séparés de la communion de l'église Romaine du 16 et 17 siècle, Par. 1718, '19, iii. Bibliothèque des Auteurs Ecclesiastique du 18 siècle par Claude Pierre Goujet, Par. 1736, '37, iii. 8, comp. Richard Simon, Critique de la Bibliothèque, etc. Paris, 1730, iv. 8. Ceillier, Remy, Histoire Générale des

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