THE CHEMICAL NEWS Edited by AND JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE James H. Gardiner, F.C.S. Established (WITH WHICH IS INCORPORATED THE "CHEMICAL GAZETTE "). in the Year 1859. Published Weekly. Annual Subscription, free by post, 1 Entered at the New York Post Office as Second Class Mail Matter. Transmissible through the Post-United Kingdom, at Newspaper rate; Canada and Newfoundland, at Magazine rate. Vol. 119.-No. 3115 [Copyright Friday, December 26, 1919.. ARTICLES reserved. The Constitution and Structure of the Chemical Element, by H. Visions of a European Financial Crisis SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY ...... ....... NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTS .... 300 304 304 305 306 306 306 Registered as PRICE 4d. a Newspaper. POST FREE 44d. LONDON COUNTY COUNCIL. There is a Vacancy for a VISITING TEACHER OF BUILDING SCIENCE at the L C.C. School of Building, Clapham, S.W., on one evening a week, at a fee of 20/- per attendance. Candidates should possess a Science degree, and lecturing and teaching experience is desirable. Preference will be given to those persons who have served or attempted to serve with the Forces of the Crown. Application forms can be obtained from the Education Officer (T.1.), Education Offices, Victoria Embankment, WC. 2. (Stamped addressed foolscap envelope necessary) Forms must be returned by II a.m on JANUARY 12, 1920. Canvassing disqualifies. B.Sc., 2nd Hons. Chemistry (London), 22, ex-Army, just completed Degree from College, desires Post with good prospects in Research or Works Laboratory. Good references. Details and salary offered to Stubbings, Fair Oak, Eastleigh, Hants. Chemist, with high qualifications (Ph.D., Ph.Ch.) and large experience as Analytical and Pharmaceutical Chemist, speaking many languages, wants Situation in London.Apply to P. G., Strand Palace Hotel (Room No. 885), 371, Strand, London, W.C. 2. Dec. 26, 1919 No. 42-"ASHLESS." Double Acid-washed and extremely close of texture. For use with No. 50-Hardened by treatment with Nitric Acid. Very tough, it will resist great pressure, and SOLE MANUFACTURERS: W. & R. BALSTON, LTD., MEDWAY MILL, MAIDSTONE, KENT. FIND OUT ALL ABOUT OUR COMPLETE RANGE FROM OUR REVISED BOOKLET AND PRICE LIST. In case of difficulty in obtaining Free Samples, write the Sole Mill Representatives H. REEVE ANGEL & CO., 9, BRIDEWELL PLACE, LONDON, E.C. 4. It is well known that single electro-positive charges emanate from masses of 1 (hydrogen), 7 (lithium), 23 (sodium), and 39 (potassium); also that two electropositive charges emanate from 4 (helium), of which one has been shown to emanate from a mass of 3; therefore it is evident that single charges emanate from each of the following masses:-1, 3, 7, 23, 39. And it has been shown that the difference between the total number of electric charges (the atomic number) and the maximum valency is an even number; so that it is evident that the charges are quiescent in pairs. Also it is evident from experiments on radio-activity, which are frequently quoted in the CHEMICAL NEWS, that an electro-negative charge is converted into a positive charge by the emission of a B-ray, so that a negative charge is potentially a positive charge, and is only negative under certain conditions which will be evident later. With the above facts as the main data together with several other facts which have been proved to be true in the CHEMICAL NEWS (July 18, 1919, and November 28, 1919), it is now possible to solve the mystery involved in the integers representing the atomic weights of the first 26 elements. 4. Electro-positive forces are distinguished from electronegative forces by the following rule :-An electro-positive force emanates from each of the masses 1, 3, 7, 23, 39, except when an element has one or more portions (1+3), in which cases electro-positive forces emanate from these portions, whilst electro-negative forces emanate from each of the remaining portions of the element. 5. Hydrogen forms the connecting link in the structure of these elements. With regard to the first coincidence some people may think it is easy enough to split up the atomic weights of these 20 elements in this manner, but if the atoml weight of each one of them be raised or lowered by unity not a single one could be thus split up. For instance, if the atomic weight of Mn were 54 instead of 55 it is impossible to split the former number up into seven parts in any way whatever using any or all of the numbers 1, 3, 7, 23, 39. And the same remark applies to all the 20 atomic weights when increased or diminished by unity. The probability that the first coincidence has happened by accident is 1: 214, taking into account the six exceptions, GI, N, O, F, Ne, and A. This is obtained in the following manner :-If there had been no exceptions the probability would have been I : 226, with one exception I: 224, and so on, and therefore But since some people may with six exceptions 1: 214. like to exclude H3 and Sc, the probability becomes 1: 210 = 1: 1024; say, I : 1000. And in the same way the probability that each of the third, fourth, and fifth coincidences has happened by Therefore the probability that the five coincidences have happened together by accident is I: 10004 = I to a billion; i.e., the probability that these five coincidences contain a truth is 1,000,000,000,000: I. But the probability is much greater than this really, because some of the coincidences are not by any means simple. accident is 1: 1000. Even if scientists objected to one or two small details in the facts upon which this reasoning is based, still it is evidently a matter of infinite probability; i.e., it is certain that the matter contains a truth. But from what follows it will be seen that the matter is much more certain even than this, because four of the apparent exceptions demonstrate a deeper truth, only two, Gland N, being real exceptions. If we include O, F, and Ne in the table, arranging their parts so that they fall in with the symmetry of the table, they will appear as follow: H H3 He Li B Mg ΑΓ Si P S CI K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn .. .. .. At. wt. 7 = II = Here oxygen is divided into six parts, F in into seven, and Ne into eight, and it is necessary to remember that O falls in the Periodic Table in a column where all the elements except itself have a valency of 6, and F falls also in a column where every element except itself has a valency of 7, and Ne falls in a column where the valency would be expected to be 8, but becomes reduced to zero owing to the union of four pairs of strong forces. So the question arises :-Is there anything in the tables which distinguishes these elements from the remainder? The answer is in the affirmative, for only in these cases are the metallic portions not greater in mass than the non-metallic. The metallic portion of oxygen is 7+1-8, and its nonmetallic portion is 3+1+3+1 = 8. The metallic portion of F is 7, and its non-metallic portion is 1+3+1+3+1+3=12. The metallic portion of Ne is 7+1=8, and its nonmetallic portion is 1+3+1+3+1+3=12. So that it is possible now to bring the facts with regard | place in the volcanic vent during an eruption have to 23 out of the 26 elements under one generalisation as based much of their speculation upon the equation follows:-Each of the atomic weights of 23 of the first 26 3FeO + H2O — Fe3O4+H2+15400 cal. (Chamberlain, elements can be split up into as many portions, 1, 3, 7, 23, Carnegie Publication No. 106, Ixvi., 1903; Daly, "Igneous 39, as the element has valences in a uniform manner, but Rocks and their Origin," 1914, p. 272; Von Wolff, when the sum of the portions (1+3) helium) of an element "Vulkanismus," 1914, i., p. 116). This equation must is not less than the remaining portion the valency of the not be taken too literally, because recent investigations element is reduced by as many pairs of valencies as the have indicated that the action of steam upon a ferrous element has "helium" portions. iron oxide at high temperatures gives rise to a " magnetite" of variable composition (Hilpert and Beyer, Ber., 1911, xliv., 1618). The actual composition obtained is dependent upon the temperature. (The whole problem of the various oxides of iron is an exceedingly difficult one to study experimentally, and much yet remains to be done before the problem can be considered satisfactorily solved). Two new coincidences are now evident from the tables. 6. The longer the string of H-H3 the greater is the volatility of the element, ceteris paribus. 7. The longer the string of H-H3 the stronger are the electro-negative forces from the metallic portions, ceteris paribus. In the case of neon these two forces are so strong that they unite, making neon an inert gas; or two atoms unite and become atomised to form another inert gas, argon. The constitution and structure of an atom of sulphur, as an example, may now be given as follows: Na-H-H3-H-H3-H, where Na stands for 23, H for 1, and H3 for 3, the thick The molecule K2SO4, e.g., may then be represented as Na-H-H2-H-H3-H, he two electro-negative forces of O combining with the two electro-positive forces of each "helium" portion, and a base OK combining with each of the electro-negative forces. THE OXIDATION OF LAVA BY STEAM. CRYSTALS of olivine and other iron-bearing minerals are found associated with glass in the normal Kilauean lava, and some years ago the question arose as to whether their presence might be taken as evidence bearing upon the probable water content of the volcanic exhalations. Preliminary experiments made at that time by the writer indi cated that the lava was not appreciably attacked by water vapour at temperatures in the neighbourhood of 1000° C., and that the presence in the lava of so much iron in the ferrous condition was not at variance with the water content of the emanations observed by Day and Shepherd. (See Day and Shepherd, " Water and Volcanic Activity," Bull. Geol. Soc. America, 1914, xxiv., 652; Smithsonian Report for 1913, 302, Publication 2286; Shepherd, Bull. Hawaiian Volcano Obs., vii., July, 1919). These experimental results, obtained in 1912 and 1913, are now presented as a matter of record. Most of the writers who have speculated upon the rôle that water plays in the chemical reactions which take An analysis of a fresh flow of Kilauean lava shows 9.28 per cent FeO and 192 per cent Fe2O3 (Ferguson, Am. Journ. Sci., 1914, xxxvii., 400, Analysis B). The ratio of ferrous to ferric iron in this rock is much greater than the ratio in magnetite (1 : 2), and, were we dealing with the pure oxides only, this fact might be used as an argument against the presence of a preponderance of water vapour in the gas phase. The lava, however, does not contain ferrous oxide as a separate phase. The ferrous iron exists mainly in the silicate minerals and the glass, together with a little in the traces of magnetite which are probably present, although microscopic examination does not show appreciable amounts of Fe3O4. The equations which would represent the reaction between water and the ferrous iron in the silicates might be quite different in character from the equation given for the pure oxides, and an assumption of analogous behaviour in these cases appears to be a somewhat risky matter. (Such an assumption appears to have been made by Brun, who states that water vapour directly oxidises the His statement is not conferrous silicate to magnetite. firmed by analyses of the solid products after reaction with water, but rests on the change in colour of the rock and the presence of hydrogen, together with CO and CO2, in the gases evolved-Arch. Sci. Phys. Nat., 1916, xli., 404). Indeed, Thaddéef's results upon the oxidation of olivine by ignition in air indicate that the oxides are much more easily oxidised than is the ferrous iron of the olivine (Kryst., 1896, xxvi., 77). He found that only two-thirds of the iron present in this silicate could be oxidised by such ignition, whereas it is common knowledge that ferrous oxide would be readily changed to ferric oxide under similar treatment (Sosman and Hostetter, Journ. Am. Chem. Soc., 1916, Xxxviii., 820). My results qualitatively confirm the observations of Thaddéef in this respect, and were carried out as follows: Materials.—A piece of lava from the crater floor of Kilauea was crushed in a hardened steel mortar, and the part that passed the 20 but not the 40 mesh sieve (0.38— 0.86 mm.), and also the part that passed the 200 mesh sieve (less than o'074 mm.) were used. The nitrogen was made from sodium nitrite, or by removal of oxygen from air by copper, and was passed through the usual purifying and drying train. Apparatus and Procedure.-The furnace was a platinum wound resistance furnace of the type usually employed in this laboratory. The temperatures were determined by means of a platinum-platinrhodium thermoelement and a suitable potentiometer set-up. A long porcelain tube was placed in the furnace so that it projected 20 or 30 cm. out of the furnace at one end and 5 or 6 cm. at the other. The charge was placed in a platinum boat in the porcelain tube, and the boat had attached to it a stiff platinum wire which enabled one to insert the boat into the hot portion of the tube or to withdraw it into the colder portion at will. For the steam experiments the steam-generating apparatus was attached to that end of the porcelain tube which projected 5-6 cm. from the furnace. This apparatus TABLE I.-Results of Experiments with a Kilauean Lava in Contact with Nitrogen and Steam. (a) Top of charge. (b) Bottom of charge. (c) Air pumped out of charge and replaced by nitrogen before charge inserted into hot part of tube. (d) Time for experiment two hours, including heating and cooling. consisted of a boiler and pre-heater. The latter also acted as a trap for liquid water. The boiler had two valves, so that the water in it could be boiled for some time to expel all oxygen before an experiment was started. The rest of the apparatus was so arranged that it could be initially swept out with pure nitrogen, and then, after the steam had been shut off at the close of an experiment, could be again filled with nitrogen. The water that condensed in the cold portion of the porcelain tube was wiped sut before the boat was withdrawn. During the wiping-out process and the cooling of the charge, an atmosphere of pure nitrogen was maintained. Typical Experiment.- Five grms. of lava powder were placed in a platinum boat, and the boat placed in the cold end of the porcelain tube. Nitrogen was then admitted to the apparatus and all the air swept out. The boat was then pushed into the hot portion of the porcelain tube. The nitrogen was partly shut off and steam admitted. When a good flow of steam was obtained through the furnace the nitrogen was entirely shut off. The porcelain tube was so tilted that the water condensing in the colder portion of the tube, after passing the hot zone, would drain away from the furnace. After the experiment had run for the desired time, the steam was gradually replaced by nitrogen. The liquid water in the end of the porcelain tube was wiped out (a good flow of nitrogen prevented the access of air during this operation), and then the boat was withdrawn to the cold portion af the tube and, when cold, removed. A part of the charge was analysed for ferrous iron by the modified Pratt method, as used by Washington ("The Chemical Analysis of Rocks," 1910, 2nd edition, p. 136; 1919, 3rd edition, p. 186). Calcium phosphate, as recommended by Gage, was used to aid in the determination of the end-points in the permanganate titration (Fourn. Am. Chem. Soc., 1909, xxxi., 381). It should be noted that if any of the reducing gases present in the rock dissolved when the rock sample was brought into solution, they would be titrated and would appear as ferrous iron. The results obtained in the experiments at atmospheric pressure and at a low pressure of nitrogen are given in Table I. In addition, the results of two miscellaneous experiments are given below. 19. Some of the lava powder was heated in a platinum crucible in air over a Meker burner for two hours. The ferrous iron content was then found to be 1'94 per cent. 20. Some of the oxidised product obtained in Experiment 19 was heated in a partial vacuum (o'1 mm. of nitrogen) for four hours at 1100° C. The ferrous |