88 Steel Industry-Opportunities for Britain. A follows: CHEMICAL NEWS, 1. Plants producing phloroglucol tannins yield original reds only; plants producing caffetannin yield original blues only. 2. Plants producing gallotannin seem inclined (owing to less acid) to display vivid violets or warm purplish blues according to circumstances, but never cold true blues. 3. There is only one anthocyan pigment in plants producing caffetannin; the red on stem or petal is here due to acid only. 4. Yellow flowers are due to carotin or its diffused oxidised product (xanthophyl), and very rarely to a flavone. tain many more reactive groups such as methylene CH2, | work leading to little or no definite conclusion. A sumcarbonyl CO, &c., than that of the blue. Strongly reactive mary of my own conclusions may be condensed as phenols like phloroglucol, a conjugated or a "crossed system" of double linkings, or a condensation with elimination of oxygen, would obviously be fatal to the placidity and uniformity of a genuine cold and retiring blue. chromophore either present or readily forthcoming, and an efficient number of auxochrome groups in proper positions would undoubtedly be indispensable. All these conditions, positive and negative, are fully satisfied apparently in the case of caff-tannin. It behaves like a 3-ketonic acid, it has no CO group or ethylene compound, has six HO groups, is not a glucoside, and is a kind of "lakey" combination of two molecules of cafeic acid with two molecules of Thus there are quinic acid plus one molecule of water. three hydroxyl groups in the ortho position and two in the para position relatively to one another; there is also a lateral group of three carbon atoms, viz., CH=CH.COOH, relationship to cinnamene, definite showing a C6H5(CH=CH2). The quinic acid residue very readily yields a CO group, but there are only two other very reactive CH2 groups in the molecule of this tannin, so that altogether, while it is quite sufficiently though not extravagantly endowed with chromophoric groups, the presence of numerous and well placed auxochromes enables it to function as a very efficient chromogen of the softer and colder colorations. Its approach to cinnamene and to quinol, and its avoidance, as it were, of the highly reactive phloroglucol as a phenolic basis or nucleus, enable it on slight changes of its molecular structure to escape the grave disturbance and discoloration attendant on the formation of phlobaphene. In fact, to anyone sufficiently acquainted with the general reactions of the phloroglucol tannins as distinguished from those of caffetannin, it will appear perfectly evident that the chromogenic agency or activity of the latter must inevitably be of a much milder and "cooler" type than that of the former. The views expressed in the preceding paragraph may seem to be based on some ill-digested theory or fanciful hypothetical assumption, but as a matter of fact they are absolutely not so in the slightest degree; they have really and naturally sprung up as the result of a studied contemplation of the facts. It was not long after a course of practical analysis of many common wild plants that it became increasingly evident to me that a true blue flower was invariably associated with a mildly reacting tannin which, on boiling with dilute mineral acid for a few minutes, gave no bright or muddy reddening of the liquid followed by a red-brown precipitate on cooling, At first I was misled by Stein's statement (1863) that "the blue pigment was none other than the saline (calcium) compound of the red matter, which appears to be paracarthamin," but I soon worked myself out of this fundamental error, and gradually grew convinced that it was only one kind of tannin that could possibly create an original true blue, and that this effect depended entirely on the constitution of the chromogen itself, and not at all on an incidental comalkali. Even in 1832 De bination thereof with an Candolle stated that the red of hydrangea belongs certainly to blue; i.e., its chromule was less oxidised or more carbonated, while the red of rose belongs to the more He was, of course, not then oxidised (xanthic) series. aware of the grave differences as respects reactivity which the chromogens of the original pigments of these two flowers exhibit; but his statement nevertheless is highly significant, inasmuch as it demonstrates that even, thus early, observers were to be found who were acute enough to be able to detect the distinction between an original pigment and a non-original one. 5. The white flower very often encloses a very dilute solution of anthocyan, but is due chiefly to the circumstance that intense deassimilation has not been occasioned in the corolla, because the nitrogen needed by the reproductive organs has been fully supplied from sources other than the inflorescence. 6. Grafe's opinion that "a special chromogen of anthocyan cannot exist" is incorrect so far as the specific hereditary tendency of the protoplasm to form certain kinds of tannin is concerned. Patterdale, Westmoreland. STEEL INDUSTRY. By WILLIAM LORIMER, LL.D., THE war is affecting practically every industry in the country. In some cases its influence may be temporary, while in others it may be permanent. The purpose of this article is to inquire what is likely to be its effect-favour. able or the reverse-on the steel trade of Great Britain, and whether it will provide an opportunity for regaining some of the markets which have been lost in recent years. The output of the principal steelmaking countries of the world in 1913 was as follows, stated in millions of tons per United States annum 24 million tons. 4 million tons. Canada also is becoming a steel-producing country, and though its output is small In comparison with the above figures, it is increasing and will become important. A beginning has also been made with the production of steel in India and Australia, while one of the largest and most worked in Newfoundland. valuable deposits of iron ore in the world is now being Continental Production. The two countries which have increased their production most rapidly during the past five years are Germany and Russia. In both there has been erected recently new plant which was not working up to its full capacity prior to the war. Germany's chief sources of ore supply are the Minette deposit in Lorraine and Luxemburg, east of the Moselle and north of Metz. This deposit is phosphoric, Some of the later researches on anthocyan seem to be and consequently the great bulk of the German steel is distinguished by a frantic attempt, begun in 1905 by In 1870 it was not known that this deposit was to any Molisch, to obtain what was considered to be the pure pig-great extent workable beyond the boundaries of that porThen also the highly tion of Lorraine which was annexed by Germany. It is ment in a crystalline condition. confusing hypothetical subject of oxydases was introduced and brought to bear upon the origin of the floral colour or pigment. The result has been a tremendous amount of basic. Read at the Institute of Industry and Commerce. From the CHEMICAL NEWS, Feb. 19, 1915 Steel Industry-Opportunities for Britain. 89 now known that French Lorraine contains a larger quantity | wages, for increased facilities for cheapening production. of rather better quality than German Lorraine, the approximate figures being The discovery in 1877 of the basic process of steelmaking gave an immense impetus to the development of this deposit, and the output of German Lorraine rose from about one million tons in 1880 to about 30 million tons in 1913. The development of the deposit in French Lorraine has been very rapid recently, and the output in 1913 was about 15 million tons, large quantities of which were exported to Germany and Belgium. Germany also im ports about 10 million tons of ore from other sources, chiefly cheap qualities of phosphoric hematite. It will be seen from this that should Germany, as a result of the war, be compelled to surrender Lorraine to France her sources of ore supply will be seriously affected, and the cost of her purchases will, in all probability, be considerably increased. At present the whole area of the Minette deposit is withtn the German lines. Germany has also large reserves of coal, which have been rapidly developed during recent years, and in many cases the steel companies own their own collieries. They have also developed in a marked degree the system of utilising the waste gases from coke ovens and blast furnaces in the process of steel manufacture, and by this means they have reduced the consumption of coal per ton of steel to a minimum. The United States have enormous supplies of cheap fuel, and also large supplies of fairly high-grade ores, which, although seldom found in proximity to the steel works, are developed on a very large scale with special arrangements for economical transport, so that as yet comparatively small quantities of ores have been imported. About one-half of the steel produced in the States is acid and one-half basic. The increase in the production of steel in the United Kingdom in recent years has been relatively insignificant as compared with the United States or Germany. In steelmaking, as in so many other industries, Great Britain has been a pioneer. We began years before the basic system was invented, and thus have relatively a much larger proportion of our plant devoted to the manufacture of the purer and costlier acid steel than any other country in the world. Supplies of Ore. reason for the absence of growth in the pro These factors, combined with the National Insurance Act, the Mines Regulation Acts, and similar legislation have so enhanced the cost of production that foreign competition has become increasingly difficult to meet. export. In Russia there are large quantities of both ore and coal, and the principal development has been near the Black Sea. The home market is highly protected, and as yet comparatively small quantities have been available for France, while rich in iron ore, is comparatively poor in reserves of coal. During the past five years there have been considerable developments of iron ore mines in the West of France, partly controlled by German firms, while quite recently French firms have acquired large interests in the newly discovered coalfield in Kent. Austria-Hungary is relatively poor in both iron ore and coal reserves, nevertheless a considerable amount of modern steel plant is operated. Belgium has not much coal and very little ore, but considerable supplies are drawn from Luxemburg, just across the border, and there are extensive modern works near Liége. There are considerable deposits of ore in the Belgian colony in the Congo, but the operation of these will probably belong to the time when we shall have to draw our supplies from the Southern Hemisphere. cheaper rate per ton than a minimum, and the application of this principle, combined with remunerative prices obGerman manufacturers to make a fairly successful effort to capture our export trade and to obtain a footing in our home markets. tained for work for the home market, has enabled the ganised by a syndicate of manufacturers, who, no doubt, This effort has been carefully and systematically orallot the foreign orders to the works best suited to execute them at the lowest cost. For methods of combined action in the United States. This can be done much more easily than would be possible in Great Britain in existing conditions, for an outstanding feature of the German steel Our output of acid steel has remained practically sta- industry is that it is controlled by a very few large comtionary for the last ten years, being round about four mil-panies. Incidentally it may be remarked that anti trust lion tons per annum, while our output of basic steel has legislation has probably checked to some extent similar increased from one million to about three million tons. The primary duction of acid steel is tbe difficulty of getting, at a low country was not working up to its capacity, and the inenough price, increased quantities of the pure ores practically free from phosphorus which are necessary for its manufacture. On the other hand, deposits of phosphoric them are of vast extent, they can be worked cheaply, so ore are found in all parts of the world, and as many of that basic steel can be produced at a considerably lower cost than acid steel. crease in production has not been relatively as large as that of Germany. Immediately before the outbreak of the war the steel trade of Great Britain was in a very unsatisfactory condition. At the beginning of 1912 activity In the shipbuilding and other trades had created a good demand for steel in all parts of Europe. Unfortunately for us it happened that coincidently with this occurred the national coal strike, which stopped production for two months, and had In the United Kingdom there are large reserves of low- There are also large reserves of coal, but the cost of production of coal, as will be noticed later, has risen very seriously in recent years, and as many of the companies producing steel are comparatively small, and have to buy their pig-iron and coal, it has not been possible to utilise waste gas to the same extent as in Germany. Then the wages paid to certain groups of workmen are very high, and no adequate allowance has been made, in fixing When the coal strike was settled great pressure was put on the steel work for deliveries, and while arrears were being worked off prices were maintained at a high level. At the same time, however, the pressure for deliveries on German works was never so great, and quite a number of new plants were put to work. The result of these conditions was that large quantities of German material were contracted for by Brilish consumers of steel, and by the middle of 1913 British mills were short of orders and could only be kept going on a very much reduced output. 90 Steel Industry-Opportunities for Britain. British Difficulties. CHEMICAL NEWS, Feb. 19, 1915 this to be done? One thing we ought emphatically not to depend on is sentiment. No doubt it will help us for a time, but it would be weakness and folly to trust to it in-permanently. The increased purchases from Germany at this time were perhaps, in the circumstances, inevitable, but probably few realise how unfavourably our position in ternational competition has been affected by this strike and by the legislation already referred to. The most serious feature of our present position is the increased cost of production. To take one item only. If we compare the year 1904 with the spring of 1914 it will be found that for the manufacture of one ton of acid steel plates made in Scotland from ores imported from abroad the cost of the coal used has been increased by no less than 14s. 6d. per ton of plates. This result has been arrived at in spite of improvements in plant reducing the consumption of coal, and as a matter of fact the small output during the spring of 1914 just about neutralised the effect of the improve ments. Immediately on the declaration of war not only was there an instant cessation of imports of German steel into this country, but German exports to neutral markets were also stopped by the closing of German ports. As our own ports were open and the seas practically clear it looked as if the world's business in steel might be shared by ourselves and the United States, but it quickly became evident that there was no export business for either country. The magnitude of the struggle and of the interests involved so dislocated international finance that international business was paralysed, and therefore while there was great activity in the production of war material, exports of steel of the ordinary kind were almost entirely suspended. The financial arrangements of the Government have, however, proved very effective, and within the past few weeks there has been a greatly improved demand for steel for export, while the numerous shipbuilding orders recently placed have increased the demand for home consumption. The Commercial Intelligence Department of the Board of Trade have issued a series of memoranda showing the extent of German trade in neutral markets and the openings they afford for British manufacturers, and it is to be hoped that they will receive the full and careful study which they deserve. Even in respect of the steel trade alone the details are too numerous to permit of their being embodied in this article, but one or two figures may be given. The value of iron and steel plates and sheets exported by Germany in 1912 was £3.523,000, of which over half a million was imported into the United Kingdom, about half as much was sent to India and the Dominions, and the rest to neutral markets. British exports in the year 1913 amounted to £2,813,000. Germany's exports of rails in 1912 amounted in value to £2,900,600, of which 129,900 represented imports into the United Kingdom, and £205,300 into India and the Dominions. British exports in 1913 amounted to £3,457,800. Of railway wheels and axles complete and tyres and exles loose Germany exported in £1,377,000, of which the United Kingdom took £40,000 and India and the Dominions £349,000. For the year 1913 British exports amounted to £1,210,000, of which India and the Dominions took £783,000. British Opportunities. 1912 The Government of the Commonwealth has forbidden Government purchases from Germany in the future, and that is probably indicative of the feeling that will prevail among our Dominions and Dependencies. But we have to think of the ordinary consumer, who is an important factor in the maintenance of this industry. At present he is a sincere and full-hearted patriot, but "when the hurlyburly's done, when the battle's lost and won," and he settles down to the old conditions of peaceful trading, it will be in no way surprising if his love for the cheapest market so revives that if patriotic sentiment were put in would kick the beam. one scale and half-a-crown a ton in the other the former In considering, then, what is to be done let it be clearly understood that nothing is imported into this country which cannot be equally well made here, and that every neutral market in the world is open to us at a price. The one essential factor in the extension and retention of our trade is a reduction of costs, both in production and in distribution. With respect to the latter the German system is one of combination as against our system of individualism, and it has certainly produced striking results. It will be well worth while for our own manufacturers to consider the feasibility of a closer alliance of the present producing companies, so that orders for all classes of steel may be executed at the mills best suited for the creation of a better selling organisation, and it should various products. Such an alliance would facilitate the keep its members in close touch with the official British Trade Commissioners settled in all parts of the world, who are eager to help British manufacturers and who are constantly rendering valuable assistance to all who apply for it. With respect to reduced cost of production, while, as already indicated, the conditions at home are not so favourable as in Germany for the utilisation of waste gas, still, wherever this and the utilisation of exhaust steam are possible, the subject should have the most careful consideration. Attitude of Trade Unions. American With regard to wages, manufacturers have not been quite fairly treated by the trade unions. When the making of open-hearth steel began a 25-ton furnace was a large Now furnaces of 60 tons capacity are quite common, but one, and the wage rate per ton was fixed on this basis. the rate per ton remains the same. But wages are either high or low only relatively to production. wages are the highest in the world, but they are really lower than ours in relation to the output of the mills and furnaces. A sustained maximum output will reduce costs, will provide high wages, and will ensure employment; for only through full economic production can demand be regularly maintained. Restriction of output is unsound in principle and mischievous in its effect on employer and workman alike. There are large markets open to us in Norway, Sweden, the Netherlands, and Switzerland. Hitherto these have been almost monopolised by Germany. In Russia, Italy, Japan, and our own Dominions Germany's predominance is much less marked, but it has nevertheless a very considerable share of the trade which the sympathetic feeling of the allied and friendly countries should make it easy for us to capture, if sufficient energy is displayed and if reasonable prices are quoted. A manufacturer will naturally and properly seek to obtain a reasonable profit on his costs, but these should be costs determined not by the use of obsolete plant but of an equipment designed and intended to produce the most economical results, so that if present exigencies give him admission into new markets he may in the future be able to retain them on his merits. CHEMICAL NEWS, Feb. 19, 1915 Action of Lead, Copper, Tin, &c. on Water. Defective Business Methods. During the past two years I have been in many parts of the world and have heard complaints of our business methods constantly repeated. These may be stated here, though they are not applied exclusively, or even specially, to the steel trade. For instance, Colonial and foreign buyers complain that the British manufacturer will not supply what they want, but what he thinks they should use, because it is what he is in the habit of making. He would do better to act on the principle that it is his business to supply as cheaply as possible what the world's markets require, not something else and not necessarily something better. Then, again, if a man wants to buy at a price per kilo instead of per ton, why put any difficulty in his way? Nothing more is involved than a simple calculation. Or if he wishes to pay in francs, in roubles, or in dollars, why not? It is simply a question of exchange. His catalogues and price lists ought to be prepared in the language of the country to which they are to be sent, and while currency varies nearly everywhere he should be prepared whenever necessary to express his measurements in metrical dimensions. The point is that we ought to adapt ourselves to the buyer's conditions and make it easy and not difficult for him to do business with us. Preparation should be made not only for an early future but for a future more remote. As it was in 1870 and afterwards so it is likely to be again. When the war ends there will be much wastage which will have to be replaced in our Navy and in our mercantile marine, although if the German Fleet is handed over to us as part of our indemnity the expenditure necessary on our Navy will be materially reduced. But all this frightful expenditure by the nations involved, in men and in money— an expenditure which is producing no economic return will impoverish the world for years. munerative expenditure and all expenditure imperative must be curtailed until the capital destroyed is, at least in part, replaced, and therefore while we may expect a great outburst of trade at the close of the war, it will probably be followed by a period of restricted demand and keen competition. Let this be kept well in view in all preparation for the future. Re not I am much indebted to my friend and colleague, Mr. Wallace Thorneycroft, far the trouble he has taken in collecting for me the statistical information contained in this article. ON THE ACTION OF LEAD, COPPER, TIN, 13. Lead. ABOUT the corrosion of lead the same introductory remarks may be made as in the case of tin. The electro❘ chemical potential is o'151 volt, the overvoltage according to Caspario o 64 volt, according to Mott 0'50 volt. Consequently a liberation of hydrogen from dilute sulphuric acid and other acids is not to be expected. However, in the presence of air oxidation of hydrogen on the surface of the metal takes place, the catalytic influence of the metal being considerable (Note 85). The action between lead and water containing air has been studied extensively (Note 86). Th. Paul, W. Ohlmüller, R. Heise, and Fr. Auerbach (Note 87) especially have chosen a more systematic way of trying to solve the problem than their predecessors. Their experiments have been continued by M. Pleissner (Note 88). He observed that water wholly free from carbonic acid but containing much solved oxygen generated at first a brown film, then a greenish yellow powder, PbO (solubility at 18° 0.31 millimol. Pb per litre 64 mgrms. Pb = 69 mgrms. PbO). = 91 In water, containing air free from carbonic acid, a white hydrate, (PbO)3. H2O (solubility at 18° 0'45 millimol. Pb per litre 93 mgrms. Pb about 100 mg ms. PbO), and perhaps other hydrates are formed. = The presence of carbonic acid considerably lowers the percentage of dissolved lead according to the experiments of Paul, Ohlmüller, Heise, and Auerbach. For instance. when the water contained about 40 mgrms. carbon dioxide and about 8 mgrms. oxygen per litre, only about to mgrms. Pb per litre were found, a basic carbonate being probably formed (the solubility of the normal carbonate is 0.0002 millimol. = 0.04 mgrm. Pb per litre). When sodium hydrocarbonate is added, the quantity of dissolved lead is still further reduced. In a solution of 8-9 mgrms. oxygen and 35 mgrms. NaHCO3 per litre only o6 mgrm. Pb per litre was found (at 18°). Carbonic acid causes this quantity to increase. In water containing per litre 8.3 mgrms. oxygen, 35'3 mgrms. NaHCO3, and 32-33'4 mgims. CO2, about 1 mgrm. Pb (at 18°) appeared to be present, Suppose for simplicity's sake-the solution to be saturated with PbCO3 (Note 89). Then we have the equilibrium. PbCO3 (dissolved Pb+CO3" meaning that the quantity of lead in the solution will be increased by adding carbonic acid and diminished if hydrocarbonate be added. As lead sulphate is much more soluble than lead carbonate (solubility at 18° 0'126 millimol. PbSO4 per litre 38 mgrms. PbSO4 26 mgrms. Pb) Paul, Ohlmüller, Heisse, and Auerbach also investigated the influence of sodium sulphate. When at a temperature of 18° about 8.5 mgrms. oxygen, 35'5 mgrms. NaHCO3, 71 mgrms. Na2SO4, and 33.8-347 mgrms. CO2 were present per litre, a quantity of about 3 mgrms. lead was found per litre. Although the quantity of Pb-ions cannot be increased by adding Na2SO4 or PbSO4, as it only depends on the least soluble lead salt (viz., PbCO3), the total quantity of dissolved lead increases in consequence of dissolving PbSO4molecules. As lead chloride is again much more soluble than lead sulphate (solubility at 18° 33'6 millimol. per litre 9'34 grms. PbCl2 = 6955 grms. Pb) the total quantity of dissolved lead will increase if a chloride be added. In the extensive literature mentioned in the publications referred to in Note 86 many observations are to be found about the influence of dissolved substances in water containing air (drinking water, &c.) on the corrosion of lead. But the results often seem to contradict one another. Although a systematic investigation on the influence of all the substances found in varying quantities in different waters would of course add much to our knowledge of the solubility of lead in these waters, it would not be easy to predict from the analysis of some water or other its conduct towards lead. In practice it will be much easier and more reliable to make an accurate experiment with the water in question. Only then will it be possible to fully 92 Some Aspects of Industrial Chemistry. imitate the circumstances under which the said water will come in contact with the lead to be used, pure or not (Note 90). It may be remarked that in the experiments of Paul, Ohlmüller, Heise, and Auerbach and those of Pleissner stress is laid principally on the quantity of the lead compounds which dissolve in the water which is brought in contact with the lead. About the rate of oxidation of lead in contact with salt solutions of different composition and its dependence on this composition very little is known. This is also the case with the circumstances under which a protective layer is sometimes formed on the lead and its dependence on the composition of the water. Perhaps in this process some part is played by passivity. According to Galdensteeden Egeling and M. Müller (Notes 91 and 92) only the hydrocarbonates are able to generate a protective layer; others, for instance, Kühnemann (Note 93), are of opinion that sulphates also act in this way (Note 94). Notes. 85. Sackur, Arb. Kais. Gesundh., amte xxii., 205, 1905. See for the formation of hydrogen peroxide during the oxidation of lead amalgam in the presence of dilute sulphuric acid, F. Schönbein, Journ. Prakt. Chem., 1864, xciii., 25. 86. See the literature mentioned by G. Wolfhügel, Arb. Kais. Gesundh., amte ii., 146, 484, and by Kühnemann, Viertelj. schr. f. ger. Med. u. öffentl. Sanitätsw., 1904, xxvii., 314; also Woudstra and Snuif, Chem. Weekbl., 1912, 447, 1013; Meerburg, Ibid., 1912, 494. 87. Arb. Kais. Gesundh., amte xxiii., 333, 1906, also published separately. 88. Ibid., 1907, xxvi., Heft iii., also published separately, "Ueber die Löslichkeit einiger Bleiverbindungen in Wasser." 89. When a basic carbonate is present instead of this normal carbonate, the reasoning is the same; in which case, of course, the concentration of the OH-ions also figures in the solubility product, and there will be the fewer Pb-ions, in proportion as the concentration of the OHions will be more considerable. 90. Vide also the communications by J. W. de Waal, Chem. Weekbl., 1909, vi., 987, who also mentions my advice. About an accelerating influence of the presence of some tin, see Ibid., 1912, 454. For the manufacture of the so-called composition pipes as a rule very impure lead is used. Both the outside and the inside of the pipe are coated with a film of tin. 91. Pharm. Weekbl., 1904, 561. 92. Journ. Prakt. Chem., 1887, xxxvi., 317. 93. Viertelj. schr. f. ger. Med. n. öffentl. Sanitätsw., 1904, xxvii., 314. 94. Compare the above mentioned solubilities of lead carbonate and lead sulphate. (To be continued). SOME ASPECTS OF INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY.* By L. H. BAEKELAND, Sc.D. (Continued from p. 83). HERE, then, is a very well worked-out process, admirably studied in all its details, which, in its heroic struggle for existence, has drawn upon every conceivable resource of ingenuity furnished by the most learned chemists and the most skilful engineers, who succeeded in bringing it to an extraordinary degree of perfection, and which, nevertheless, has to succumb before inexorable, although seemingly secondary, conditions. Strange to say, its competitor, the Solvay process, entered into the arena after a succession of failures. When Solvay, as a young man, took up this process, he was, *The Chandler Lecture, Columbia U.S.A., 1914. CHEM CAL NEWS, Feb 19, 9115 himself, totally ignorant of the fact that no less than about a dozen able chemists had invented and reinvented the very reaction on which he had pinned his faith; that, furthermore, some had tried it on a commercial scale, and had, in every instance, encountered failure. At that time, all this must, undoubtedly, have been to young Solvay a revelation sufficient to dishearten almost anybody. But he had one predominant thought to which he clung as a last hope of success, and which would probably have escaped most chemists; he reasoned that, in this process, he starts from two watery solutions, which, when brought together, precipitate a dry product, bicarbonate of soda; in the Leblanc process, the raw materials must be melted together, with the use of expensive fuel, after which the mass is dissolved in water, losing all these valuable heat units, while more heat has again to be applied to evaporate to dryness. After all, most of the weakness of the Leblanc process resides in the greater consumption of fuel. But the cost of fuel, here again, is determined by freight rates. This is so true that we find that the last few Leblanc works which manage to keep alive are exactly those which are situated near unusually favourable shipping points, where they can obtain cheap fuel, as well as cheap raw materials, and whence they can most advantageously reach certain profitable markets. In its com But another tremendous handicap of the Leblanc process is that it gives as one of its by-products, hydrochloric acid. Profitable use for this acid, as such, can be found only to a limited extent. It is true that hydrochloric acid could be used in much larger quantities for many purposes where sulphuric acid is used now, but it has, against sulphuric acid, a great freight disadvantage. mercially available condition, it is an aqueous solution, containing only about one third of real acid, so that the transportation of one ton of acid practically involves the extra cost of freight of about two tons of water. Furthermore, the transportation of hydrochloric acid in anything but glass carboys involves very difficult problems in itself, so that the market for hydrochloric acid remains always within a relatively small zone from its point of production. However, for a while at least, an outlet for this hydrochloric acid was found by converting it into a dry material which can easily be transported; namely, chloride of lime or bleaching-powder. The amount of bleaching-powder consumed in the world practically dictated the limited extent to which the Leblanc process could be profitably worked in competition with the Solvay process. But even this outlet has been blocked during these later years by the advent of the electrolytic alkali processes, which have sprung up successfully in several countries, and which give as a cheap by-product, chlorine, which is directly converted into chloride of lime. To-day, any process which involves the production of large quantities of hydrochloric acid, beyond what the market can absorb as such, or as derivatives thereof, becomes a positive detriment, and foretells failure of the process. Even if we could afford to lose all the acid, the disposal of large quantities thereof conflicts immediately with laws and ordinances relative to the pollution of the atmosphere or streams, or the rights of neighbours, and occasions expensive damage suits. Whatever is said about hydrochloric acid, applies to some extent to chlorine, produced in the electrolytic manufacture of caustic soda. Here again the development of the latter industry is limited, primarily, by the amount of chlorine which the market, as such, or as chlorinated products, can absorb. At any rate chlorine can be produced so much cheaper by electrolytic caustic alkali processes than formerly, and in the meantime the market price of chloride of lime has already been cut about in half. In as far as the rather young electrolytic alkali industry has taken a considerable development in the United States, let us examine it somewhat nearer |