like, it may be safely pronounced, have been supposed to form the worst machinery of any.

Illus. In description they are sometimes allowable, and may serve for embellishment; but they should never be permitted to bear any share in the action of the poem. For, being plain and declared fictions, mere names of general ideas, to which even fancy cannot attribute any existence as persons, if they are introduced as mingling with human actors, an intolerable confusion of shadows and realities arises, and all consistency of action is utterly destroyed. (See Art. 307. and 308.)

616. In the narration of the poet, which is the last head that remains to be considered, it is not material, whether he relate the whole story in his own character, or introduce some of his personages to relate any part of the action that had passed before the poem opens.

Illus. Homer follows the one method in his Iliad, and the other in his Odyssey. Virgil has, in this respect, imitated the conduct of the Odyssey; Tasso that of the Iliad.

617. In the proposition of the subject, the invocation of the muse, and other ceremonies of the introduction, poets may vary at their pleasure.

Illus. It is trifling to make these little formalities the object of precise rule, any farther than that the subject of the work should always be clearly proposed, and without affected or unsuitable pomp. For, according to Horace's noted rule, no introduction should ever set out too high, or promise too much, lest the author should not fulfil the expectations he has raised.

618. What is of most importance in the tenor of the narration is, that it be perspicuous, animated, and enriched with all the beauties of poetry. No sort of composition requires more strength, dignity, and fire of imagination, than the epic poem.

Illus. 1. It is the region within which we look for every thing that is sublime in description, tender in sentiment, and bold and lively in expression; and, therefore, though an author's plan should be faultless, and his story ever so well conducted, yet if he be feeble, or flat in style, destitute of affecting scenes, and deficient in poetical colouring, he can have no success.

2. The ornaments which epic poetry admits, must all be of the grave and chaste kind. Nothing that is loose, ludicrous, or affected, finds any place there. All the objects which it presents ought to be either great, or tender, or pleasing. Descriptions of disgusting or shocking objects should as much as possible be avoided; and therefore the fable of the Harpies, in the third book of the Æneid, and the allegory of Sin and Death, in the second book of Paradise Lost, had been better omitted in these celebrated poems.

Obs. The judicious teacher is left to illustrate, from the epic poems to which we have referred, the several branches of composition and ornament for which we have furnished rules or criteria of judgment.

CHAPTER VIII.

CONCLUSION.

ON PRONUNCIATION, OR DELIVERY.

619. THE great objects which every speaker will naturally have in view in forming his delivery, are, first, to speak so as to be fully and easily understood by all who hear him; and next, to speak with grace and force, so as to please and to move his audience.

620. In order to be fully and easily understood, the four chief requisites are, a due degree of loudness of voice; distinctness; slowness; and propriety of pronunciation.

621. The first attention of every public speaker, doubtless, must be to make himself be heard by all those to whom he speaks. He must endeavour to fill with his voice the space occupied by the assembly.

Obs. 1. This power of voice, it may be thought, is wholly a natural talent. It is so in a good measure; but, however, it may receive considerable assistance from art. Much depends for this purpose on the proper pitch and management of the voice.

2. Every man has three pitches in his voice; the high, the middle, and the low one. The high is that which he uses in calling aloud to some one at a distance. The low is, when he approaches to a whisper. The middle is that which he employs in common conversation, and which he should generally use in public discourse.

622. In the next place, to being well heard, and clearly understood, distinctness of articulation contributes more, perhaps, than mere loudness of sound.

Obs. The quantity of sound necessary to fill even a large space, is smaller than is commonly imagined: and with distinct articulation, a man of a weak voice will make it reach farther than the strongest voice can reach without distinct articulation.

Corol. To this, therefore, every public speaker ought to pay great attention. He must give every sound which he utters, its due proportion, and make every syllable, and even every letter in the word which he pronounces, be heard distinctly; without slurring, whispering, or suppressing any of the proper sounds.

623. In the third place, in order to articulate distinctly, moderation is requisite with regard to the speed of pronouncing. Precipitancy of speech confounds all articulation, and all meaning.

Obs. We need scarcely observe, that there may be also an extreme on the opposite side. It is obvious, that a lifeless, drawling pronun

ciation, which allows the minds of the hearers to be always outrunning the speaker, must render every discourse insipid and fatiguing. But the extreme of speaking too fast is much more common, and requires the more to be guarded against, because, when it has grown up into a habit, few errors are more difficult to be corrected.

624. After these fundamental attentions to the pitch and management of the voice, to distinct articulation, and to a proper degree of slowness of speech, what a public speaker must, in the fourth place, study, is, propriety of pronunciation; or the giving to every word which he utters, that sound, which the most polite usage of the language appropriates to it; in opposition to broad, vulgar, or provincial pronunciation.

Obs. This is requisite, both for speaking intelligibly, and for speaking with grace or beauty. Instructions concerning this article, can be given by the living voice only.

625. Emphasis, pauses, tones, and gestures.

626. By emphasis, is meant a stronger and fuller sound of voice, by which we distinguish the accented syllable of some word, on which we design to lay particular stress, and to show how it affects the rest of the sentence.

Obs. 1. Sometimes the emphatic word must be distinguished by a particular tone of voice, as well as by a stronger accent. On the right management of the emphasis, depend the whole life and spirit of every discourse.

2. If no emphasis be placed on any words, not only is discourse rendered heavy and lifeless, but the meaning left often ambiguous. If the emphasis be placed wrong, we pervert and confound the meaning wholly.

Example. "Do you ride to town to day?" is capable of no fewer than four different acceptations, according as the emphasis is differently placed on the words. If it be pronounced thus, Do you ride to town to-day? the answer may naturally be, No; I send my servant in my stead. If thus, Do you ride to town to-day? No; I intend to walk. Do you ride to town to-day? No; I ride out into the fields. Do you ride to town to-day? No; but I shall to-morrow.

Obs. 3. In like manner, in solemn discourse, the whole force and beauty of an expression often depend on the accented word; and we may present to the hearers quite different views of the same sentiment, by placing the emphasis differently.

Example. In the following words of our Saviour, observe in what different lights the thought is placed, according as the words are pronounced: " Judas, betrayest thou the Son of Man with a kiss ?" Betrayest thou-makes the reproach turn on the infamy of treachery. Betrayest thou-makes it rest upon Judas's connection with his Master. Betrayest thou the Son of Man-rests it upon the Son of Man's personal character and eminence. Betrayest thou the Son of Man with a kiss?-turns it upon his prostituting the signal of peace and friendship, to the purpose of a mark of destruction.

627. Next to emphasis, the pauses in speaking demand attention. These are of two kinds; first, emphatical pauses; and next, such as mark the distinctions of sense.

Illus. 1. An emphatical pause is made, after something has been said of peculiar moment, and on which we want to fix the hearer's attention. Sometimes before such a thing has been said, we usher it in with an emphatical pause. Such pauses have the same effect as a strong emphasis; and are subject to the same rules; especially to the cau tion just now given, of not repeating them too frequently. For as they excite uncommon attention, and of course raise expectation, if the importance of the matter be not fully answerable to such expectation, they occasion disappointment and disgust.

2. But the most frequent, and the principal use of pauses, is to mark the divisions of the sense, and at the same time to allow the speaker to draw his breath; and the proper and graceful adjustment of such pauses is one of the most nice and difficult articles in delivery.

628. When we are reading or reciting verse, there is a peculiar difficulty in making the pauses justly. The dif ficulty arises from the melody of verse, which dictates to the ear pauses or rests of its own; and to adjust and compound these properly with the pauses of the sense, so as neither to hurt the ear, nor offend the understanding, is so very nice a matter, that it is no wonder we so seldom meet with good readers of poetry.

Illus. 1. There are two kinds of pauses that belong to the music of verse; one is, the pause at the end of the line; and the other, the cæsural pause in the middle of it. With regard to the pause at the end of the line, which marks that strain or verse to be finished, rhyme renders this always sensible, and in some measure compels us to observe it in our pronunciation.

2. In blank verse, where there is a greater liberty permitted of running the lines into one another, sometimes without any suspension in the sense, it has been made a question, Whether in reading such verse with propriety, any regard at all should be paid to the close of a line?

3. We ought, therefore, certainly to read blank verse so as to make every line sensible to the ear. At the same time, in doing so, every appearance of sing-song and tone must be carefully guarded against. The close of the line, where it makes no pause in the meaning, ought to be marked, not by such a tone as is used in finishing a sentence; but without either letting the voice fall, or elevating it, it should be marked only by such a slight suspension of sound, as may distinguish the passage from one line to another without injuring the meaning.

4. The other kind of musical pause, is that which falls somewhere about the middle of the verse, and divides it into two hemistichs; a pause, not so great as that which belongs to the close of the line, but still sensible to an ordinary ear. (See Art. 569.)

629. The rule of proper pronunciation here is, to regard only the pause which the sense forms; and to read the line accordingly. The neglect of the cæsural pause may make the line sound somewhat unharmoniously; but the effect

would be much worse, if the sense were sacrificed to the sound.

630. Tones in pronunciation are different both from emphasis and pauses; they consist in the modulation of the voice, and the notes or variations of sound which we employ in speaking.

Illus. 1. How much of the propriety, the force and grace of discourse, must depend on these, will appear from this single consideration; that to almost every sentiment we utter, more especially to every strong emotion, nature hath adapted some peculiar tone of voice; insomuch, that he who should tell another that he was very angry, or much grieved, in a tone which did not suit such emotions, instead of being believed, would be laughed at.

2. Sympathy is one of the most powerful principles by which persuasive discourse works upon the mind. The speaker endeavours to transfuse into his hearers his own sentiments and emotions: which he can never be successful in doing, unless he utters them in such a manner as to convince the hearers that he feels them. The proper expression of tones, therefore, deserves to be attentively studied by every one who would be a successful orator.

3. Follow nature; consider how she teaches you to utter any sentiment or feeling of your heart. Imagine a subject of debate started in conversation among grave and wise men, and yourself bearing a share in it. Think after what manner, with what tones and inflections of voice, you would on such an occasion express yourself, when you were most in earnest, and sought most to be listened to. These are the tones which the advocate carries with him to the bar, the clergyman, to the pulpit, and the patriot and demagogue, to any public assembly. Let then these be the foundation of your manner of pronouncing, and you will take the surest method of rendering your delivery both agreeable and persuasive.

631. Of GESTURE, or what is called action in public dis

course.

632. The fundamental rule, as to propriety of action, is undoubtedly the same with what hath been given as to propriety of tone. Attend to the looks and gestures, in which earnestness, indignation, compassion, or any other emotion, discovers itself to most advantage in the common intercourse of men; and let these be your models.

Illus. 1. Some of these looks and gestures are common to all men; and there are also certain peculiarities of manner which distinguish every individual. A public speaker must take that manner which is most natural to himself. For it is here, just as in tones.

2. It is not the business of a speaker to form to himself a certain set of motions and gestures, which he thinks most becoming and agreeable, and to practise these in public, without their having any correspondence to the manner which is natural to him in private. His gestures and motions ought all to carry that kind of expression which nature has dictated to him; and unless this be the case, it is impossible, by means of any study, to avoid their appearing stiff and forced.