GEOGRAPHICAL DELINEATIONS. whirlpools, gulfs, and water-spouts—the peculiarities of the different zones-the climates, and the distribution of plants and animals in the different regions of the earth-the atmospherical phenomena in different countries, thunder, lightning, aurora-borealis, the monsoons, trade-winds, sea and land breezes, hurricanes, and tornadoes-the distribution of temperature in different parts of the earth -the variety of seasons in the different zones, and the reasons why all the four seasons prevail at the same moment in different countries -the changes which have been produced on the surface of the globe by earthquakes, volcanoes, the action of water, the influence of the atmosphere, and the agency of man-the varieties of the human race, the population of the globe, and the number of individuals that are daily ushered into existence, and of those who daily retire from the living world. To these views of natural scenery may next be added explanations of maps, and of the different circles on the artificial globe, of the nature of longitude and latitude, the division of the circle into degrees and minutes, the variety of days and nights, the reasons why the zones are bounded at particular degrees of latitude by the tropics and polar circles, and the mode by which the circumference of the earth and its other dimensions have been determined. The explanations of astronomical geography, such as the causes of the different seasons, the annual and diurnal motions of the earth, and the method of finding the latitudes and longitudes of places, may be postponed till the pupil proceeds to the study of astronomy. 103 hensive ideas are generally entertained of this noble and interesting feature of the terrestrial surface. Three or four extensive chains of mountains may be distinguished, from which flow numerous ramifications, and which, with some interruptions from the sea, extend nearly round the globe. One of these chains uns through Lapland, Finland, and Northern Russia, including the Ural mountains, sending forth branches in different directions. Another runs along the southern parts of Europe, including the Alps and PyreneesHungary, Persia, Tibet, including the Himalaya, and, stretching in different directions, pass through China, Japan, and the Kurile islands towards Kamtschatka, from which another chain diverges, and establishes a connection with the grand chain of the American continent. Another ridge runs along the southern hemisphere, through Africa, Paraguay, the islands of the Pacific, and New Holland; and another extensive chain runs from north to south, along the whole length of America, including the Andes, the Rocky and the Blue mountains. The pupils should be directed to trace these ranges, with all their different branches, not only along the continents, but across the oceans, where the tops of the higher ridges appear in the form of islands, their average elevations remaining below the level of the sea.-2. Another delineation should consist of an elementary map, showing the various objects connected with geography: such as continents, islands, peninsulas, isthmuses, promontories, mountains and plains, woods and forests-rivers, lakes, seas, gulfs, friths, straits, and channels In describing such objects as the above, and other departments of geography, illustrative and the manner in which cities, towns, maps and delineations, such as the following, forts, roads, shoals, sand-banks, soundings, are requisite-1. A stereographic projection sunken rocks, and the direction of the winds, of the globe on the plane of the meridian, are represented in maps.-3. Delineations which divides it into the eastern and western showing the proportional length and breadth hemispheres; and another projection on the of the principal rivers on the globe. This plane of the equator, having the poles in the might, perhaps, be more distinctly exhibited by centre, dividing the earth into the northern a number of rods of different lengths, graduand southern hemispheres. Without this ally tapering to a point as the respective last projection, which is seldom exhibited in rivers diminish in breadth, from their mouths books of geography, the relative positions of to their sources. Other delineations might countries in Asia, North America, and other represent their lengths, not in straight lines, regions, cannot be distinctly traced. On both but with all their curves and windings.-4. these maps, the ranges of mountains which A chart or delineation of the comparative size diversify the globe, and all the rivers which of countries, lakes, and islands; so that the flow from them, should be particularly de- proportional spaces on the globe, occupied by lineated, without any other objects or distinc- such countries as Russia, China, Great Britain, tions, except the names of the countries, seas, the United States, &c. may be perceived at a oceans, rivers, and mountain-chains, in order glance. These spaces may be represented to present to the young mind, at one view, either by squares, parallelograms, or circles. this grand and distinguishing feature of our 5. An Isothermal chart, showing the cliglobe. For want of such maps on a large mates and vegetable productions of the earth; scale, accurately delineated, with the moun- in which the mean temperature of its different tains and rivers, represented in their propor- regions, the plants which flourish in them, tional magnitudes, no accurate nor compre- the length of the longest days and nights, the divisions of the zones, and other particulars may be distinctly noted.-6. A chart of geographical zoology, showing the various tribes and species of animals with which the earth is peopled, and the several regions where the different species abound. The names of the animals might be engraved instead of the names of towns, and if the chart was on a large scale, the figures of the most remarkable animals might likewise be engraved.-7. A map of Africa and America, and the Atlantic ocean lying between them, on the same sheet, for the purpose of exhibiting, at one view, the whole Atlantic, with its islands, and the relative positions of the coasts of Africa and South America. Also, another map, on the same scale, representing the eastern parts of Asia and New Holland on the one hand, and on the other, the western coast of America, with the Pacific ocean, and its numerous groups of islands which intervene, for the purpose of showing the nearest approach which the old and new continents make to each other, and the relative positions of the islands and countries connected with the Pacific.-8. A map or chart of Moral geography, exhibiting the prevailing religion of the several countries, and the moral state of their inhabitants, which might be distinguished, either by different colours or by different shades in the engraving. In this map the countries enlightened by Christianity, and those which are still shrouded in Pagan darkness, might be exhibited at one view; for the purpose of showing to the young what an immense portion of the world is still immersed in heathen ignorance and idolatry, and what exertions are still requisite for enlightening the benighted nations; and for the purpose of stimulating them to bear a part in those philanthropic movements which are now going forward for the enlightening and renovation of the world.-9. Views of cities, public buildings, mountains, caves, grottos, volcanoes, interesting landscapes, and whatever scenes or objects are most striking on the surface of the globe. Some of these views might be exhibited by the optical diagonal machine formerly described.-10. Sets of coloured maps of the quarters of the globe, and its different countries, delineated in the usual way.-11. A projection of the globe on the horizon of the particular country where the pupils reside, for the purpose of showing the bearings and distances of places from the country in which they are placed.-12. Plate globes, on which the pupil may trace with a pencil the circles of the sphere, the ranges of mountains, the course of rivers, the outlines of continents and islands, and whatever else may tend to familiarize his mind to the general arrangements of the earth. On such globes mistakes may be remedied and inac curacies corrected by the application of the sponge; and, after the pupil has been for some time accustomed to such delineations, he will soon acquire a clear and comprehensive view of the outlines of the globe, and become familiar with the relative positions of its continents, seas, and islands.-13. Delineations of the comparative heights of the prin cipal mountains on the globe-the mountains in the eastern and western hemispheres being arranged in two separate groups. On the same sheet might likewise be delineated, comparative views of the heights of different ranges, arranging them into six or seven classes, beginning with views of such mountains as those of Scotland, Wales, and Ireland, which do not much exceed 4000 feet, and gradually proceeding to such as the Cordilleras and the Himalaya, whose summits reach an elevation of above 20,000 feet.-14. Models of particular countries might occasionally be made of wax or other materials, particularly of mountainous regions, for the purpose of exhibiting an idea of the scenery of a country, the windings of its rivers, and the comparative height of its mountains above the general level of its surface. No map can convey an idea of such particulars, or of the general appearance and prominent features of any country, similar to that of a well-executed model. I have seen in the Museum of the University of Edinburgh, several models of the kind to which I allude, of the vales and mountainous regions of Switzerland, in which the position of the towns, the course of the rivers, the lakes, the lines of roads, the vales, the rocks, the forests, and the comparative elevation of the mountains, are exhibited, as if one were looking down upon the country from the clouds. The only objection to such models would be the difficulty of getting them executed, and the consequent expense which would be incurred. But, if one model were accurately executed, others could easily be taken from it, on the same principle as phrenologists take casts of the human skull. By the assistance of such maps and deline ations, and with the aid of a judicious textbook, comprising a comprehensive view of the outlines of physical, mathematical, civil, statistical, and historical geography, an enlightened teacher will be enabled gradually to lead his pupils forward to luminous views of this interesting subject. In describing the different countries, he should give a comprehensive outline of whatever is peculiar to each country, and select for particular description, whatever interesting objects of nature or art may have a tendency to excite the attention and gratify the curiosity of his pupils, referring them to their larger systems of geography for more minute details. In such descriptions, the de GEOGRAPHICAL BOOKS FOR SCHOOLS. tails of moral, statistical, and religious geography should occupy a more prominent place than they generally do in our systems of geography and scholastic courses on this subject. The statistics of our own country, of the various states of Europe, and particularly of the United States of America, which are very imperfectly known, and respecting which there exist numerous misconceptions and unreasonable prejudices on this side of the Atlantic, should be particularly detailed. The moral and mental degradation of the heathen world; the missionary stations which have been fixed in different parts of it for counteracting the influence of barbarism and idolatry, and diffusing the light of divine knowledge; the various success which has accompanied such undertakings; and the philanthropic enterprises which are now going forward in different countries for the moral renovation of mankind, should be depicted to the view of the young with all the vividness and energy which the importance of such subjects demands, in order to allure them to the consideration of such objects, and to secure their endeavours in promoting them. It is a striking and melancholy feature in the records of our race, that almost the whole of history and historical geography is occupied with details of the miseries of mankind, produced by ambition, avarice, and injustice, the tyranny of despots, and the desolations of war; and that scarcely a bright spot can be perceived on the surface of the globe, and amidst the gloomy records of past generations, on which the eye of benevolence can rest with unmingled delight. Hence it has happened, that we have scarcely a history of the operations of pure philanthropy, except - in the instance of our Saviour and his apostles. And now, when philanthropic plans have been formed, and benevolent enterprises are carrying on, our geographers and men of science, so long accustomed to blaze abroad the exploits of ambition and malignity, will scarcely condescend to notice or record the operations by which the moral world is beginning to be enlightened and regenerated. This is not what it ought to be, or what we ought to expect from those who are engaged in the diffusion of knowledge. All knowlege should be directed so as to have a moral bearing, and to stimulate the mental activities of the young to those benevolent exertions by which the best interests of their ellow-men, in every land, may be promoted. Geographical compendiums for the use of schools should be clear and comprehensive in their details, and enlivened with occasional picturesque descriptions of human scenery and of natural and artificial objects, which may be illustrated with neat engravings. They should also abound with questions and exercises of every description connected with 14 105 the subject, to afford scope for the industry of the pupil, and for the exercise of his judgment and reasoning powers. But however excellent the plan and details of any school-book may be, it ought by no means to be considered as superseding the more familiar illustrations of the teacher, and the conversational lectures alluded to above. No man can be a successful teacher of this science, but he who has a familiar and comprehensive knowledge of all the subjects connected with it, and who can, at any time, illustrate its principles and facts by viva vore descriptions and elucidations, which always make a deeper impression on the young mind than can be produced by the mere perusal of the best treatises. In working the usual problems on the terrestrial globe, (some of which are of little practical importance,) due care should be taken, that the pupils be not guided merely by the rules given for the respective problems, but that they understand the reasons why they turn the globe in this or that direction-elevate the pole to a certain degree above the horizon-or set the horary circle to a given hour. In problems which have a reference to the difference of time at different places, they may be taught to perform the operations by a mental calculation, and to ascertain, in the course of a few seconds, what nations have noon, midnight, morning or evening, at a given hour, or summer or winter, spring or autumn, on a given day or month. In commencing the study of geography, a plan or map of the town or village in which the pupils are taught, along with the adjacent country, and some of its prominent objects, might be laid before them, as introductory to the study and explanation of maps. On this map, they might be directed to attend to the cardinal points of the compass, the boundaries of the town, the streamlets or rivers, ponds or hills, and the bearings of the different streets, lanes, public buildings, and other objects, from each other; and various questions and exercises in reference to such objects, might be proposed, which would excite a spirit of observation, and prepare them for understanding maps of countries on a larger scale. A map of the county, and then a map of the state or kingdom, might next form the subject of attention, which would prepare them for the study of the particular quarter of the globe in which they reside, and of all the other countries, seas, and oceans, dispersed over the surface of the earth. This plan is evidently in conformity to the order of nature, although directly opposite to the order generally pursued.* SECTION VII.-Geology. Geology is a science which, of late years, has excited the attention of philosophers, naturalists, and theologians; and, in consequence of the researches of its votaries, many striking and important facts in relation to the structure of the earth and the changes it has undergone, have been brought to light. Many of the facts which this science discloses have a tendency to convey to the mind impressions of the wisdom, and particularly of the power of the Creator, in those stupendous forces which produced the convulsions and changes which have taken place both on the surface and in the interior strata of the globe. They are likewise applicable to various practical purposes. A minute and circumstantial knowledge of the various facts which have been ascertained by geologists in different countries, may be of extensive use to those employed in mining operations, when searching for coal, fossil salt, or metallic veins, and might prevent many ruinous speculations to which ignorant projectors are frequently subjected. In excawhich have an extensive circulation in the NewEngland States. Among these are the following: - Woodbridge's "System of Universal Geography, on the principles of comparison and classification. 5th edition, 1833." This work, comprised in a thick 12mo. volume of 500 very closely printed pages, comprehends an immense mass of information on physical, civil, and statistical geography, including descriptions of a great variety of facts in relation to the geological structure of the earth. It is illustrated by nearly a hundred engravings of natural and artificial objects; such as sections of rivers, canals, comparative elevation of mountains, cataracts, races of man, geological sections, cities and public buildings, which both enliven and elucidate the descriptions. Appended to this work, is a lucid and judicious compend of "Ancient Geography, as connected with Chronology," including sketches of sacred history, mythology, and the early history of mankind, by Mrs. Willard-a lady who appears to have made considerable researches into the different departments of geographical science, and to have promoted the cause of general education. Both these works are admirably calculated for the higher classes in schools, and abound with a great number of questions and exercises, for stimulating the attention and ingenuity of the young. Had this volume been sparsely printed, according to the fashion that prevailed 20 or 30 years ago, like "Playfair's Geography," and other works, it would have occupied two or three quarto volumes of 1500 pages. -2 Woodbridge's “Rudiments of Geography, on a new plan," 18mo containing 208 closely printed pages, and about 170 cuts, and comprising a very considerable portion of information on the different departments of geography. It may be considered as partly an abridgment of the larger work noticed above, and partly an introduction to it. The cuts, though small, are sufficiently vivid and distinct to convey an accurate idea of the objects they are intended to represent. It has passed through seventeen editions, comprising more than 200,000 copies. Mr. Woodbridge is a corresponding member of the Geographical Society of Paris, and Editor of the American "Annals of Education;" and a gentleman who appears to be quite familiar with all the departments of geographical, physical, and mathematical science. His geographical works are rich in information in respect vations for the purpose of forming canals, tun nels, and rail-roads operations which are now going forward in almost every part of the civilized world-a knowledge of this subject could not fail to be highly beneficial to all parties engaged in such projects. Besides, the study of this science is intimately connected with Scripture history and theology, and its facts, when viewed in a proper light, have a tendency to elucidate certain portions of the Sacred writings, and to illustrate the harmony and the connection which subsist between the visible operations of the Creator and the revelations of his word. For these reasons, it might be expedient to communicate to the young a general idea of some of the leading facts connected with geology, without perplexing them with any of the speculations of philosophers, or the theories which have been formed to account for geological phenomena; leaving them to deduce their own conclusions at a future period, when their knowledge of such subjects shall be increased, and their judgment matured. to every topic connected with his general subject, and have received the approbation of the Geographical Society of Paris, and of many scientific characters on the continent of Europe, particularly Humboldt and Fellenberg -3 A Practical System of Modern Geography," by J. Olney, A. M.an 18mo. of 288 pages, closely printed on a plan somewhat similar to Woodbridge's Rudiments, illustrated with nearly a hundred engravings, and containing a very considerable portion of useful information. This work has passed through fifteen editions.-4 "The Malte-Brun School Geogra phy," by Mr. Goodrich, a large 18mo. volume of nearly 300 pages, and containing about 133 engravings. This work contains a larger quantity of letter-press than the two former, and a great variety of facts in relation to civil and descriptive geography, but is not so full as Woodbridge's volumes in its details of physical and statistical geography. Fifteen thousand copies of this work were sold in the space of 18 months from the date of its first publication. The Atlases belonging to these works are beautifully executed, and contain several of the projections I have suggested above, besides sets of maps as usually delineated, along with a variety of useful descriptions and statistical tables. In the Atlas which accompanies Olney's "Practical System," the population of the respective towns and cities can be ascertained at a glance, by means of certain characters and figures connected with their names. Hall's Child's Book of Geography," and Peter Parley's "Geography for Children," each of them containing about a hundred pages, in a square 18mo, size, and embellished with a variety of maps and cuts appear well calculated to interest the minds of youth, and to convey a general idea of the leading fea tures of the world. Some of the above works, with a few alterations, might be published with advantage in Great Britain. They contain more particular maps and descriptions of the United States than are to be found in geographical works published on this side of the Atlantic A comprehensive and useful compend of geography for the use of schools, might be compiled from the volumes now mentioned, by selecting the descriptions, exercises, and more interesting portions of each, and combining them into a volume calculated for the meridian of our own country. 1 GEOLOGY. A brief description might be given, in the first place, of the solid parts of the earth, of the various strata of which they are composed, and of the classifications which geologists have made of the different kinds of rocks. These rocks are usually arranged under the following classes:-1. Primary rocks, which compose the grand framework of the globe, which form the most lofty mountains, and extend to the greatest depths yet penetrated by man, and below all the other formations. The substances of which such rocks are composed, are granite, gneiss, mica-slate, hornblend, granular quartz, &c., but never contain salt, coal, petrifactions, or any remains whatever of organized substances; and therefore are supposed to have been formed before the creation of animals or vegetables.-2. Transition rocks, which include those rocks that lie over the primitive, and are composed of the larger fragments of the primitive rocks. They contain graywacke, transition limestone, slate, sandstone, &c. Shells are sometimes found in them, but no remains of land animals or vegetables. It is supposed they were formed next after the primitive rocks, and after the creation of some kinds of organized beings.3. Secondary rocks, which lie upon the transition rocks, and appear like deposites, composed of grains which once belonged to primitive rocks. The principal secondary formations are coal, chalk, secondary limestone, oolite, millstone, grit, &c., which contain petrifactions of 107 animal and vegetable substances.-4. Tertiary strata, which consist of beds of clay, sand, marl, and the newer limestone deposites. These formations are considered as newer than the secondary, and contain abundance of fossil shells and plants, along with the bones of quadrupeds and fishes.-5. Volcanic and basaltic rocks, which owe their origin to volcanic fire, and are sometimes forced up to the surface of the earth in a melted state, by the action of subterraneous heat. The principal volcanic rocks are basalt, lava, and greenstone.-6. Alluvial strata, which include deposites that are made of broken strata, consisting of sand, mud, clay, pebbles, &c., which are formed by the currents of rivers, and other causes now in operation. These classifications of rocks and formations might be illustrated by such figures as in the annexed cut, which is taken from Woodbridge's "System of Universal Geography," where Fig. 1, represents the strata of the earth, P the primary strata, T transition, S secondary, Fig. 1. A alluvial, B basaltic, V vein, b bed. Fig. 2, represents a section of the earth between latitude 40° and 45° north. In conjunction with such pictorial representations, a cabinet of materials should be procured, containing at least the following: quartz, mica, talc, feldspar, limestone, argillite, or slate, hornblend, gypsum and chlorite, which form what has been termed the alphabet of geology. Besides these, specimens should be procured of basalt, gneiss, greenstone, lava, porphyry, graywacke, and other substances mentioned above. About thirty specimens in all are sufficient for illustrating the classes of geology. With out an exhibition of these, in connection with geological descriptions, no defi EUROPE |