434 Commentaries on Aristotle and Peter Lombard, as well as his 1659, iv. fol. He is known by the name Doctor angelicus; he was born A.D. 1224, in the kingdom of Naples, taught at Paris, Rome, Bologna, and Pisa, and died A.D. 1274, on his journey to the council of Lyons. He was canonized by Pope John XXII. A.D. 1323. His principal works are: Commentarii in libros iv. Sententiar. Petri Lombardi c. notis J. Nicolai, Par. Summa totius theologiæ in 3 partes distributa. these works are given by Semler, 1. c. p. 58, ss. 161, ss. Heinrich, p. 219, ss. Schröckh, xxix. p. 71-196. Opp. omnia, Romæ 1572, xvii. fol. Antverp. 1575. Venet. 1745, xx. fol. For further particulars see Münscher edit. by von Cölln, ii. p. 19. Comp. Ch. F. Kling, descriptio Summæ theologica Thomæ Aquinatis succincta, Bonn. 1846-4. Extracts from Cramer, vii. p. 10 Duns Scotus, surnamed Doctor subtilis, was born at Dunston in Northumberland, lectured on theology at Oxford from the year 1301, at Paris from the year 1304, and died at Cologne A.D. 1308. He introduced a number of barbarous technical terms, such as quidditates, hæcceitates, incircumscriptibilitates, etc., and was thus the originator of all the scholastic subtilities. His complete works were edited by Luc. Wadding, Lugd. 1639, xii. fol. His principal work is: Quodlibeta et Commentaria in libros iv. sententiarum. To this may be added: Quæstiones quodlibeticæ. Comp. Semler, 1. c. p. 68-73. Cramer, vii. p. 295-308. Heinrich, p. 226, ss. Schröckh, xxix. p. 237, ss. - 11 In the formal point of view the systems of Thomas and of Scotus differ in this, that the former has regard rather to the scientific, the latter to the practical aspect of religion, Ritter, viii. p. 365, 66. The speculative tendency of the Thomists accounts for their desire to ascribe reality to ideas; while the Scotists, resting on the foundation of experience, manifest a stronger leaning towards nominalism. The former take more profound views of the relation between Divine grace and human liberty (Augustinism); the latter laying (in the manner of Pelagius) greater stress upon the freedom of the will, advanced notions which commended themselves better to common sense and the interests of morality. And, lastly, the same difference respecting the doctrine of the immaculate conception of the Virgin, which caused a bitter enmity between the two orders, also existed between the two schools. 12 John of Fidanza, surnamed Doctor Seraphicus, and called Eutychius, or Eustachius by the Greeks, was Doctor Theol. Parisiensis and Præpositus generalis of the order of the Franciscans, died A. D. 1274 as cardinal, and was canonized A. D. 1482 by Pope Sixtus IV.-Opp. Romæ 1588-96, viii. f. Mogunt. 1609......His principal works are: Commentarius in libros iv. Sententiarum, Breviloquium, Centiloquium. He is also said to be the author of the work entitled: Compendium theologicæ veritatis (de natura Dei). He wrote several mystical tracts: Speculum animæ, Itinerarium mentis in Deum-de reductione artium ad Theologiam. Comp. Semler, 1. c. p. 52–58. Heinrich, p. 214, ss. § 152. c. III. Period -The Decline of Scholasticism in the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries. During the last period of scholasticism, which was now on the decline, we meet with but few independent thinkers, among whom the most distinguished were Durand of St. Pourçain, Raimund of Sabunde,2 and William Ockam,3 a nominalistic sceptic. Gabriel Biel, a disciple of the last mentioned, but possessed of less originality than his master, was the last of the scholastic divines, though the corrupt tendency of scholasticism itself continued to exist, and called forth a stronger desire for an entire reformation in theology.5 1 Durandus de Sancto Portiano (a village in the diocese of Clermont), surnamed Doctor resolutissimus, was from the year 1312 professor of theology in the university of Paris, and afterwards bishop of Annecy and of Meaux. He wrote: Opus super sententias Lombardi, Par. 1508, Venet. 1571, fol. (it is now scarce).Though a Dominican monk, he ventured to oppose Thomas, on which account he was looked upon as an apostate by the genuine followers of Thomas; see Cramer, vol. vii. p. 801, ss. 2 He was teacher at Toulouse about the year 1436, and composed a work on natural theology under the title: Liber creaturarum, seu Theol. naturalis. Argent. 1496, fol. Fcf. 1635, 8. It was republished in a somewhat altered form by Amos Comenius under the title: Oculus fidei. Amst. 1661, 8. Comp. Montaigne, Essais, L. ii. c. 12. Matzke, die natürliche Theologie des Raymundus von Labunde, Bresl. 1846. 3 Ockam died A.D. 1347. Though a Franciscan monk, he differed from Duns Scotus, as Durand did from Thomas: in both these cases, therefore, the strict connection before spoken of between the spirit of the order, and the spirit of the school, is destroyed. Ockam took an independent position even in opposition to the Popes (John XXII.), by defending the doctrine of the poverty of Christ; on this point see the works on ecclesiastical history. Respecting his merits as a scholastic divine, he brought nominalism again into repute. Of his works the following are dogmatical: Compendium errorem Joh. XXII., in Goldast. monarchia. Han. 1612, p. 957. Quodlibeta vii. Tract. de sacramento altaris.-Centiloquium theologicum (the last of which, in particular, contains a great many subtilties). See Cramer, vii. p. 812, ss. On his ironical scepticism, which he knew how to conceal under the mask of the most rigid orthodoxy, see Rettberg in the Studien und Kritiken, 1839, part 1. His works abound with absurd questions (such as those mentioned in note 5). Comp. Rettberg, p. 80. 4 He was born at Spire, was professor of philosophy and theology, in the University of Tübingen, and died A.D. 1495.—He wrote: Collectorium s. Epitome ex Gulielmo Occam in iv. libros Magistri sententiarum ed. Wend. Steinbach. Tüb. 1502, ii. f. Biel was followed by Antoninus Florentinus and Paul Cortesius, see Münscher ed. by von Cölln, p. 30, Cajetan, Eck and others, who lived at the time of Luther, were also perfect scholastics. 5 Thus it was asked: Num possibilis propositio, Pater Deus odit filium? Num Deus potuerit suppositare mulierem, num diabolum, num asinum, num cucurbitam, num silicem? Tum quemadmodum cucurbita fuerit concionatura, editura miracula, figenda cruci? Et quid consecrasset Petrus, si consecrasset eo tempore, quo corpus Christi pendebat in cruce?......" Sunt innumerabiles πTOλeoxíaι his quoque multo subtiliores, de instantibus, de notionibus, de relationibus, de formalitatibus, de quidditatibus, de ecceitatibus, quas nemo possit oculis assequi, nisi tam Lynceus, ut ea quoque per altissimas tenebras videat, quæ nusquam sunt." Erasmi stultitiæ laus Bas. 1676, p. 141, ss. and in Annotation. in 1 Tim. i. 6, etc. Com. Ad. Müller, Erasmus, p. 155, and Gieseler, 1. c. ii. § 144, note g. Respecting the decline of scholasticism, Luther wrote to John Lange at Erfurt: Aristoteles descendit paulatim, inclinatus ad ruinam propre futuram sempiternam: mire fastidiuntur lectiones sententiariæ, nec est ut quis sibi auditores sperare possit, nisi theologiam hanc, i. e. Bibliam aut S. Augustinum aliumve ecclesiasticæ auctoritatis doctorem velit profiteri. The letter in question is reprinted in de Wette's Collection, I. No. 34, p. 57. Comp. the sixtieth letter (addressed to Staupitz), p. 102. § 153. MYSTICISM. * Schmid, H., der Mysticismus des Mittelalters in seiner Entstehungsperiode, Jena, 1824.- Schmidt, Charles, Essai sur les mystiques du quatorzième siècle. Strasburg, 1836, 4. [Helfferich, die Geschichte der christlichen Mystic in ihrer Entwickelung und in ihren Denkmalen. 2 vols. Hamb. 1843.] Tranz. Pfeifer, deutsche Mystiken des 14 Jahrhunderts. 1 vol. Lpz. 1845. The influence of scholasticism was beneficially counterbalanced by Mysticism, which in effusions of the heart, rich indeed, though at times indistinct, restored to theology those vital streams of which it had been deprived by the all-absorbing influence of dialectic philosophy.1 Theologians, whose tendency was of a positive kind, such as Bernard of Clairval, had before this asserted the importance of a pious disposition, holding fast the orthodox faith, and of a devout turn of mind, in opposition to a speculative tendency.2 Some of the scholastic divines themselves had endeavoured to reconcile the claims of a pious mind with the demands made by the scientific development of the age, on which account they are commonly called either mystical scholastics, or dialectical mystics. But about the time of the decline of the scholastic philosophy, mysticism made its appearance in a much more vigorous and independent form, though under very different aspects. As had been the case with the scholastics, so some of the mystics adhered more closely to the doctrine of the church, while others, departing from it, adopted heretical notions. Respecting the scientific treatment of mysticism, it may be said, that one class of its advocates manifested a more philosophical turn of mind, and displayed more of the results of preparatory philosophical studies, than was shown by the other. The doctrines of Master Eckart5 had much in common with the enthusiam of pantheistic sects, and were consequently condemned by the see of Rome. Among those who followed more closely (though with various modifications) the doctrine of the church, we mention: John Tauler, Henry Suso, John Ruysbroek, the (anonymous) author of the "Büchlein von der deutschen Theologie (i. e. the little book on German theology), Thomas a Kempis,10 and John Charlier Gerson; 11 the last mentioned also endeavoured to establish a scientific system of mysticism. 1 Mysticism forms in itself a contrast to proper Scholasticism, inasmuch as the prevailing tendency of the latter is a dialectical process of the understanding......But Mysticism could enter into a union with Scholasticism by creating a desire for preserving the spring of religion in the depth and ardour of the human heart (Germ. Gefühl), as the true seat of religion, in order to supply that which could not be furnished by purely dialectical thinking." Baur, Lehrbuch der Dogmengeschichte, p. 167. 2 He was surnamed Doctor mellifluus, and died A.D. 1153. His works were edited by Mabillon, Par. (1666—1690.) 1719, ii. fol. Ven. 1726, iii. fol. He wrote epistles, sermons, and mystical tracts: de consideratione, ad Eugenium iii. Papam. Libros v. de gratia et libero arbitrio, etc. Comp. *Neander, der heilige Bernhard und sein Zeitalter. Berlin, 1813, 8. Ellendorf, der heilige Bernhard von Clairvaux und die Hierarchie seiner Zeit. Essen. 1837. H. Schmid, 1. c. p. 187, ss. De Wette, Sittenlehre, ii. 2, p. 208, ss.-Practical activity was also displayed by Berthold, a Franciscan monk, who lived between the years 1247 and 1272; he bordered upon mysticism. See his sermons, edited by Kling, |