rise of the Sabellian controversy, which are nearly coeval, as the principle of division.

2 The numerical differences are very great.

Baumgarten

Crusius adopts twelve periods, Lenz eight, etc.; Münscher gives a different division in his compendium from the one in his manual -in the former he has seven, in the latter only three periods, (ancient time, middle ages, and modern times). Engelhardt and Mein have adopted the same division, with this difference, that the latter, by subdividing each period into two, has six periods. But we think it alike inconvenient to make the periods too long, and to have too great a number of divisions. We admit that the periods in the history of doctrines may be of greater extent than those in ecclesiastical history, because a system of doctrines does not undergo either so frequent or so rapid changes as Christian life in general; but natural boundaries which are so distinct as the age of Constantine, should not be lightly disregarded. Generally speaking, Klee agrees with us, though he considers the division into periods as superfluous. Vorländer also, in his tables, has adopted our terminology. Rosenkranz (Encyclopædie, 2nd edit., p. 259, ss.) makes, according to philosophico-dialectic categories, the following division: 1. Period of Analytic Knowledge, of substantial feeling (Greek Church; 2. Period of Synthetic knowledge, of pure objectivity (Roman Catholic Church); 3. Period of Systematic Knowledge, which comprehends the two former in their unity, and manifests itself in the stages of symbolical orthodoxy, of subjective belief and unbelief, and of the idea of speculative theology, (Protestant Church). The most ingenious division is that of Kliefoth, though it be not free from faults peculiar to itself:

1. The Age of Formation of Doctrines..| Greek........ Analytic....Theology.

Symbolical Unity..

Rom. Cath. Synthetic... Anthropology. Perfection (completion)... Protestant.. Systematic.. Soteriology. Dissolution

?

?

Church.

On the grounds on which this division rests, see Kliefoth, 1. c. 3 In answer to the question: Why not commence with the first year of our era? comp. § 3. We call this period the age of Apologetics, because it is best characterized by the great number of apologetical writings in defence of Christianity against both Judaism and Paganism. Its theology is almost entirely of the same description. The controversies which took place with

in the church itself, (with Ebionites, Gnostics, etc.), for the most part arose out of the opposition which Christianity met with on the part of judaizing teachers and pagan philosophers, and accordingly the activity which was manifested by the church, partook more or less of an apologetical character. The Fathers of this period were little concerned about systems, and the work of Origen Tepì ápxŵv is the only one in which we find some attempt, at least, at systematic theology.

4 During the second period the conflict proceeds in another direction. Since there was little or no occasion for apologetical writings after the conversion of Constantine, most writers entirely abandoned this field, and entered into questions of a polemical nature. The history of ecclesiastical controversies, from the rise of the Sabellian, down to the close of the Monothelite controversy, forms one continuous series; the different parts of which are so intimately connected with each other that it cannot well be interrupted. It is concluded by the work of John Damascenus, (ěkdeσis TíσTEWS). This period, with its numerous conflicts, its synods, and councils, is undoubtedly the most important for the history of doctrines, if its importance consists in the efforts that were put forth to complete the building, the foundation of which had been laid in the preceding period.

5 This period, which we call the scholastic, in the widest sense of the word, might be sub-divided into three shorter periods. 1. From John Damascenus to Anselm, Archbishop of Canterbury; during this period John Scotus Erigena takes the most prominent position in the West. 2. From Anselm to Gabriel Biel, the age of scholasticism properly so called, which may again be subdivided; and, 3, from Gabriel Biel to Luther, (the period of transition). Generally speaking, mystical and scholastic tendencies alternately prevailed during this period; even the forerunners of the Reformation more or less adhered to the one or the other of these tendencies, though they belonged in some respects to the next period.

6 We might have fixed upon the year 1521, in which the first edition of Melancthon's Loci Communes was published-or upon the year 1530, in which the Confession of Augsburg was drawn up, instead of the year 1517: but, for the sake of convenience, we make our date agree with the one adopted in ecclesiastical history, especially as the theses themselves were of importance in a doctrinal point of view. Inasmuch as the distinguishing principles of

C

the different sections of the church are brought out very prominently in the age of the Reformation, the history of doctrines naturally assumes the character of Symbolism, (comp. § 4). The ages of Polemics, and of Scholasticism, may be said to re-appear during this period, though in a different form; we also see various modifications of mysticism in opposition to one-sided rationalism. We might commence a new period with Calixt and Spener, if their peculiar opinions had been generally spread at that time. Such, however, was not the case.

7 It may excite surprise that we make the abolition of the test (formula consensus) in the Reformed church of Switzerland determine the extent of the preceding period, since no great importance seems to be attached to it. But it is the signal for the overthrow of those barriers, which had been erected by the confessions of faith. The Wolfian philosophy, which had emancipated itself from the fetters of systematic theology, and had been brought within the reach of all classes, took its rise about the same time in Germany, while the principles of deism and naturalism (which developed themselves in the preceding period) were spread from England and France into other countries. Thus it happens that, while in the fourth period the polemical and the scholastical of the second and third periods are repeated, the fifth period has the apologetical tendency in common with the first. The question is no more about less important denominational differences, but about the existence or non-existence of Christianity. The fifth period, which by no means presents one uniform aspect, may be subdivided into three shorter periods. The first of these (from Wolf to Kant) for the most part represents the conflict between a stiff and lifeless form of dogmatic orthodoxy, and an imperfect enlightenment. The second (beginning with Kant) exhibits the efforts which were made in favour of rationalism, in order to secure its ascendancy both in science and in the church, in opposition to every form of belief. And, lastly, the third period (which embraces the nineteenth century) presents to our view a picture composed of the most heterogeneous parts, of attempts at reaction and restoration, at idealization and accommodation, and is preparing a new period, of which it forms itself the commencement, but for which history has not yet

a name.

§ 13.

SOURCES OF THE HISTORY OF DOCTRINES.

a. Public Sources.

Everything may be considered as a source of the history of doctrines, which gives a fair representation of the religious belief of a certain period. In the first place come the public confessions of faith or symbols (creeds) of the church; in connection with them we have to compare the acts of councils,2 the decretals, edicts, circular letters, bulls, and breves of ecclesiastical superiors, whether clerical or civil, and, lastly, the catechisms, liturgies,5 and hymn - books which have received the sanction of the church.

1

Comp. § 4. The ancient creeds may be found in the Acts of Councils mentioned n. 2; the three creeds commonly called œcumenical (the Apostles' creed, the Nicene, and the Athanasian creeds) are also reprinted in the collections of Protestant symbols; comp. Ch. W. F. Walch, Bibliotheca symbolica vetus. Lemgoviæ, 1770, 8. Semler, J. S., Apparatus ad libros symbolicos ecclesiæ lutheranæ, Hal. 1755, 8. COLLECTIONS OF SYMBOLICAL BOOKS (they become only important since the fourth period): a) Of the Lutheran church: Libri symbolici ecclesiæ evangelicæ ad fidem opt. exempl. recens. I. A. H. Tittmann, Misn. 1817. 27.-Libri symbolici ecclesiæ evangelicæ s. Concordia, rec. C. A. Hase, Lips. 1827, 37, 46. b) Of the Reformed: Corpus libror. symbolicor. qui in ecclesia Reformatorum auctoritatem publicam obtinuerunt, ed. I. Ch. W. Augusti, Elberf. 1828. Sammlung symb. Bücher der ref. Kirche, von J. J. Mess. Neuwied, 1828, 30, 2 vols. 8. H. A. Niemeyer, Collectio confessionum in ecclesiis reformatis publicatarum, Lips. 1840, 8. c) of the Roman Catholic: Danz, libri symbolici ecclesiæ romano-catholicæ, Vimar. 1835.-Streitwolf u. Klener, libri symb. eccl. cathol. Gött. 1835. (Comp. the works mentioned § 16, n. 9). d) of the Greek: E. T. Kimmel, libri symbolici ecclesiæ orientalis. Jen. 1843, 8.

2

ACTS OF COUNCILS collected by J. Merlin (Par. 1523, fol.

Cöln. 1530, ii. Par. 1535). Grabbe (Cöln. 1508, f.). L. Surius, Col. 1567, fol. iv. The edition of Sixtus V. Venice, 1585, that of Binius (Severinus) Col. 1606, iv. f. Collectio regia, Paris, 1644 (by Cardinal Richelieu), xxxvii. f. Phil. Labbeus and Gabr. Cossart, Par. 1671, 72, xvii. f. Balluzii (Stephan.) nova Collectio Conciliorum, Par. 1683, f. (Suppl. Conc. Labbei) incomplete. Harduin, (Joh.), Conciliorum collectio regia maxima, seu acta Conciliorum et epistolæ decretales ac constitutiones summorum pontificum, græce et latine ad Phil. Labbei et Gabr. Cossartii labores haud modica accessione facta et emendationibus pluribus additis Par. 1715, xi. (xii.) fol.-Nic. Coleti, S. S. Concilia ad regiam edit. exacta, etc. Venet. xxiii. with additions by Mansi vi. f.—*Mansi (J. Dom.), Sacrorum Conciliorum nova et amplissima collectio, Flor. et Venet. 1759, sqq. xxxi. f. comp. Ch. W. F. Walch, Entwurf einer vollständigen Geschichte der Kirchenversammlungen, Lpz. 1759. Fuchs, Bibliothek der Kirchenversammlungen des 4 und 5. Jahrhunderts, Lpz. 1788, 4 vols. Bibliotheca ecclesiastica quam moderante D. Augusto Neander adornavit Herm. Theod. Bruns, I. (Canones Apostolorum et Concil. Sæcul. iv. v. vi. vii.) Pars. I. Berol. 1839.

3 Partly contained in the Acts of Councils.

a) DECREES OF CIVIL GOVERNMENTS EXERCISING AUTHORITY IN ECCLESIASTICAL AFFAIRS (viz. emperors, kings, magistrates) : Codex Theodosianus, c. perpetuis commentariis Iac. Gothofredi, etc. Edit. Nova in vi. Tom. digesta, ed. Ritter. Lips. 1736.Codex Justinianeus, edid. Spangenberg, 1797. Balluzii (Steph.) Collectio Capitularium Regum Francorum, etc. Par. 1780, ii. f. Corpus Juris canonici (editions of J. H. Böhmer, 1747, and A. L. Richter, 1833). Under this head come also the regulations concerning the Reformation, agendas, religious edicts of Protestant governments, which, at least formerly, were in a great measure based upon doctrinal principles.

b) PAPAL DECRETALS: Pontificum Romanorum a Clemente usque ad Leonem M. epistolæ genuinæ cur. C. F. G. Schönemann, T. i. Gött. 1796, 8.-Bullarium romanum a Leone M. usque ad Benedictum XIII. opus. absolutiss. Laërt. Cherubini, a D. Angelo Maria Cherubini al. illustratum et auctum et ad Ben. XIV. perductum, Luxemb. 1727, s. xix. fol.-Bullarum, privilegiorum et Diplomatum Roman. Pontif. amplissima collect. opera et stud. Car. Cocquelines, Rom. 1739-44, xxviii. f.