especially comprised in the TYPES, which rendered the sacrifices, oblations, and expiations figurative of Him in whom they were ordained to receive their completion in the fulness of time and as they supplied the student of Moses with the requisites to identify the true Messiah at his appearance, and established an union between the two testaments, which then evinced both to be revealed by the same All-wise Being, so they doubtless compensated to the Israelites for the absence of those mysteries and secret rites which the Gentiles had engrafted on theology, and which even the divinely taught Hebrew appears, from his numerous defections and his endless propensity to idolatry, to have required."

II. GOVERNMENT.

As many features of the previous patriarchal government were retained in the new constitution which was organised among the Sinai mountains, a short survey of that form of government will suitably introduce the general subject.

PATRIARCHAL GOVERNMENT.-Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, governed their respective families with unlimited paternal authority. The number of servants in these families was so great that the power of the patriarchs was by no means inconsiderable. This appears from the fact that the males capable of bearing arms among Abraham's house-born servants alone amounted to 318.* These patriarchs were, in fact, powerful chiefs, as the emirs of the nomades are at the present day. They were completely independent, and owed allegiance to no sovereign; they formed alliances with other princes, and even with kings; they maintained a body of armed servants, and repelled force by force. For their vassals they were the priests who appointed the festivals and presented offerings; the guardians who protected them from injustice; the chiefs who led them to war; the judges who banished the turbulent, and, when necessary, inflicted even capital punishment upon transgressors.† The twelve sons of Jacob, after the death of their father, ruled their own families with the same authority. But when the descendants had increased so as to form tribes, each tribe acknowledged a chief or prince as its ruler. This office was at first hereditary, and belonged to the eldest son of the founder of the tribe, but probably afterwards became elective. This division of nations into tribes was very general in ancient times, and is still retained by nomades, such as the Bedouins and the Tartars. As the numbers of each tribe increased, the less powerful families united themselves to their stronger relatives, and acknowledged them as their superiors. Hence there arose a division of the tribes into collections of families. Such a collection was called a house of fathers, a clan, or a thousand, not because each of these divisions contained a thousand persons, for it is evident that the number varied.‡ Before the departure from Egypt, the Israelites were under the immediate government of the rulers of these clans, who were denominated heads of houses of fathers, heads of thousands, &c., and were in rank subordinate to the princes. These two classes of rulers were comprehended under the general name of elders or heads of tribes.§ They were fathers rather than magistrates, governing according to the regulations established by custom, and the principles of sound reason and natural justice. They provided for the general good of the whole community, while the concerns of every individual family still continued under the control of its own father. In general, those cases only which concerned the fathers of families themselves came under the cognizance of the elders. This patriarchal form of government has been, in a great measure, preserved to this day among the nomades, particularly among the Bedouin Arabs. They call the heads of their tribes emirs, or princes, and the heads of clans sheikhs, or elders, under which last of these denominations the Hebrews included both these orders of rulers.

• Jahn calculates the number capable of bearing arms-that is, not too young or too old-as one to four, which would make the number of home-born male servants amount to 1,272. Doubling this to include the females, we obtain 2,544 as the number in this class only, exclusive of purchased slaves, the number of which is nowhere stated. Allowing a suitable proportion for these, Abraham's subjects must have amounted to several thousands; and hence an estimate may be formed of the number of herds to attend which so many servants were necessary.

+ Gen. viii. 20, xiv. 14, 24, xv. 9, 10, xxi. 14, xxii. 13, xxxiv. 14, xxxviii. 24; Job i. 5. Judg. vi. 15; 1 Sam. x. 19, xxiii. 23; Num. xxvi. 5-50.

Num. i. 16, x. 4.

It had originally been the duty of the princes themselves to keep the genealogical registers. Subsequently they employed scribes for that purpose; and these, in process of time, acquired such great authority, that, under the name of shoterim (rendered officers in our public version), they possessed considerable authority and sustained an important part in the government.*

While the Hebrews were in Egypt, the sovereign of that country did not interfere with this form of internal government. On the contrary, they made it instrumental to their own purposes; for the Hebrew shoterim were employed, under the direction of Egyptian overseers, to apportion and press forward the burdens of the people. But as the Hebrews after their deliverance from Egypt were to become a settled and agricultural nation, and were besides set apart for especial and important purposes, it was necessary that they should be provided with new political institutions, suited to such a condition and destination. For this purpose, as we have seen, they were led to the Sinai mountains, where they entered into peculiar compact with God, upon which the whole constitution was unalterably settled

THE FUNDAMENTAL LAW of the Mosaic institutions, or rather their primary object, has been so fully stated and illustrated at the commencement and in the progress of the preceding portion [RELIGION] that nothing further on the subject need be said in this place. To preserve the connection of ideas, it is only necessary to remind the reader that this primary object was to prevent the encroachments of idolatry from entirely driving from the earth the correct knowledge of the Creator and Ruler of heaven and earth, and of the relations in which the race of man stood to Him.

To the descendants of Abraham was committed the high trust of preserving this invaluable treasure in the world, and finally of imparting it to other nations. But that they might be put in a condition suitable to this peculiar destination, civil institutions were necessary, by which the knowledge and worship of the true God should be so intimately worked into the political structure of the nation that they must be imperishable, as long as that nation should remain a nation, and could only be annihilated by the annihilation of the political existence of the people. And this was the character of the institutions which the Hebrew people received from God while they lay encamped at the foot of Mount Sinai.

Thus the worship of the one only true God was made the fundamental law of the state, and to take away ground for one of the most dangerous inducements to idolatry, as exhibited in the belief that He was too remotely exalted to concern himself in the government of the world, but left his functions of providence and supervision to be administered by inferior" gods,” the universality of his providence was not only constantly inculcated, but He condescended to make himself the national and tutelary Deity of the Hebrews. It was the notion of those remote ages that every nation must have its tutelary divinity; and it was probably in accommodation to this notion that God was pleased to propose himself in this character to the Hebrews, but without allowing them to forget that He was also the sole and universal LORD.

But as the condescending manner in which JEHOVAH was pleased to represent himself to the Hebrews, was deemed insufficient to ensure the perpetuity of the knowledge and worship of the true God among them, He also became their KING, in the manner and form of which we have already spoken, so that every religious duty should become a matter of political obligation; and all the civil regulations, even the most minute, were so founded upon the relation which God had entered into with his people, and so interwoven with their religious duties, that the Hebrew could not separate his God and his King, and in every law was reminded equally of both. The nation, therefore, as long as it had a national existence, could not entirely lose the knowledge or discontinue the worship of the true God.

Thus it is seen that Moses did not, like all other legislators, employ religion to support his political institutions, but exactly reversed this order, by introducing a civil constitution which

Exod. iii. 16, v. 10-21.

was designed as a means of establishing pure religion permanently upon the earth, and of preserving the knowledge and worship of the true God to the latest generations.

RELATIONS OF THE HEBREWS TO OTHER NATIONS.* Under this very peculiar constitution the Hebrews were to govern themselves in the midst of nations who could not understand religion as separate from idolatry, which they regarded as entirely conformable to right reason, and who regarded their greatness, power, and prosperity, as the gifts of their gods and the magical effects of their worship. Pagan superstition was made attractive and alluring to the senses not only by religious pomps and ceremonies, but by indecent imagery and lascivious songs, by idulgence in fornication and unnatural lusts, as part of the worship of their gods.

That the Hebrews might live uncontaminated among people so grossly superstitious and yet so highly celebrated, as some of them were, for their wisdom, it was necessary that they should avoid all intimate friendships, and, as much as possible, all intercourse with pagans. Formal prohibitions of such intercourse would be scarcely sufficient; and it would be most effectually prevented by the introduction of peculiar customs, which, while in themselves decorous and useful, differed from those of other nations. Such customs, once established, become a second nature; and as they must be relinquished by those who wish to mix with people by whom they are despised, they remained a double barrier against union with the heathen. The Hebrews were already accustomed to a similar state of things among the Egyptians; and among themselves some singular, if not peculiar rites, were already in existence, particularly that of circumcision. These peculiarities formed the basis on which the great wall of partition between them and other nations was built. Their ancient usages were more accurately defined by the Mosaic law, and new rites were added. Everything was strongly contrasted with the customs of pagans, or designed to keep the Hebrews in constant remembrance of Jehovah their king. Thus many details of the law which, without reference to circumstances, may appear arbitrary or trivial, tended to separate the people from the heathen and to guard them against idolatry; and in this view they were of essential importance to the end for which they were designed-the preservation of the knowledge of the true God.

This separation from paganism was indispensable to the accomplishment of the purposes which the Hebrews were designed to answer. But separation from other nations, not enmity to them, was that which the law required. Individuals were forbidden to form intimate friendship with the heathen; but whenever they had any necessary transactions with them, they were required to treat them affectionately as neighbours, and to fulfil in respect to them all the common duties of philanthropy. Precepts to this effect are of frequent occurrence in the Mosaic law.† The Hebrew government could also enter into alliance with other states when the public good required it. Moses indeed makes an exception in regard to a few nations; but the very exception is a tacit permission to form connection with others when necessary. These exceptions will come under our notice historically, when also we shall have occasion to trace the disastrous effects which resulted from the occasional neglect of the laws by which the intercourse and alliance with foreign nations were restricted.

HEBREW MAGISTRATES.-Having thus exhibited the foreign relations of the Hebrews, as regulated by the fundamental law of the state, we may now turn our attention to their domestic polity. This remained much as it had been under the patriarchal government, but re-organised in such a manner, that the people might recognise in every civil institution the sovereignty of JEHOVAH their king. The Hebrews were still divided into twelve tribes as before. The tribe of Levi was separated from the rest, and devoted to the service of the court and the state; but the tribe of Joseph, whose two sons, Ephraim and Manasseh, were adopted

Although this section is taken (in an abridged form) almost entirely from Jahn's Hebrew Commonwealth,' which, indeed, is our chief guide throughout the present division, the pages which Moses Lowman devotes to the same subject are well worth perusal. Indeed there is little, if any, difference between Lowman and Jahn, save that the latter takes broader views of his subjects, and illustrates them with greater knowledge.

+ Exod. xxii. 10, xxiii. 9; Lev. xix. 24; Deut. x. 18, 19, xxiv. 17, xxvii. 19; compare Jer. xxii. 3; Zech. vii. 10.

by Jacob,* was subdivided into two, and received two portions in the allotment of the promised land; so that the number of the tribes remained the same.

The authority of the princes of the tribes and of the heads of families and unions was continued as before. The shoterim or genealogists were also preserved.† Yet Moses, by the advice of Jethro, his father-in-law, increased the number of judges in the manner which has been mentioned in-the historical narrative (p. 208). The judges over the divisions of tens, fifties, hundreds, and thousands, were such as were recommended to Moses by the respect and confidence of the people, and were, for the most part, selected from the heads of families, genealogists, and other persons of consideration. At the first institution there must have been about 60,000 judges of ten, 12,000 judges of fifties, 6000 judges of hundreds, and 600 judges of hundreds. This institution was willingly received by the Hebrews, as they had witnessed the regular administration of justice in Egypt, and had learned its advantages. It seems that the inferior judges, that is, those who superintended the judicial concerns of the smaller numbers, were subordinate to the superior judges, or those who judged a larger number; and, accordingly, cases of a difficult nature went up from the inferior to the superior judges; and those of a very difficult character, so as to be perplexing to the superior judges, were brought before Moses himself. After his death these were brought before the chief magistrate of the nation; or, if there were no such magistrate, the high-priest, who, as the first minister of the Invisible King, decided causes of this kind after consultation with the wisest and most learned of the priests.§ As this institution was designed to be perpetual, when any of the judges died or went out of office, their places were supplied by new elections. After the people were settled in Palestine, judges as well as genealogists were appointed for every city and surrounding district. Both offices were frequently, if not generally, held by the same person.|| These judges sustained a civil as well as a judicial character, and are included in the lists of those who are denominated the elders and princes of Israel; that is to say, supposing they were chosen from the elders and princes, they did not forfeit their seat among them by taking the judicial office; on the contrary, the respectability attached to their office (supposing they were not chosen from them) entitled them to be reckoned in their number.¶

There were, therefore, in every tribe judges, genealogists, heads of families, princes. Each of these classes of magistrates had its peculiar duties. The judges administered justice. The genealogists kept the genealogical tables, in which they occasionally noted the most remarkable occurrences of their times. The historical notices which are contained in the first book of Chronicles, and which are not found in the books of Moses, were probably derived from these tables.** The heads of families, with the prince of the tribe, had charge of the general concerns of each tribe; and, although the judges and genealogists appear to have been subordinate to them, it must be regarded as an important measure which assigned to a class not necessarily connected with them the judicial functions which had formerly belonged to their station; for whether so intended by Moses, or so understood at first by them, no one can doubt that, by this separation of the character of judge from that of hereditary chieftain, crippled the aristocratic principle to that extent which was necessary to make it work well in the new constitution, and ensure the submission of the whole to the general government. It perhaps demonstrates the success of this operation that the princes of the tribes make but little figure in the general history, and that not one of them ever took a leading or principal part in the affairs of the whole nation.

In Palestine these magistrates were distributed into the several cities, and those who resided in the same city composed the legislative assembly of that city and its surrounding district. When the magistrates of all the cities belonging to any tribe were collected, they formed the supreme court, or legislative assembly, of the tribe. In like manner the magistrates of several different tribes might assemble in one body, and legislate conjointly for all the tribes which they represented. When the magistrates of all the tribes met together they formed the

Gen. xlviii. 5.

Num. xi. 16; Dent, xvi. 18, xx. 5, xxxi. 23. Exod. xviii. 13-26; Deut. i. 12-15; compare Exod. xviii. 21, 24. § Deut. xix. 17, xxi. 5. Deut xvi. 18, xxxi. 28; 1 Chron. xxiii. 4, xxvi. 20; Deut. i. 15, 16. Deut. xxxi. 28; Josh. viii. 33, xxiii. 2, xxiv. 1. ** 1 Chron. iv. 21-23, 39-45, v. 10, 19-22, vii. 20--24.

general legislature of the whole nation.* There were no pecuniary emoluments attached to any of these offices, but they conferred great dignity and authority upon those who held them.

THE LEARNED CLASS.-The Hebrews had long acknowledged as magistrates the princes of tribes, heads of houses, and genealogists, and they admitted without difficulty the institution of judges, since their office was neither lucrative nor hereditary. Nor, at first, was any opposition made † when the tribe of Levi, which had greatly distinguished itself by its zeal for JEHOVAH, the Invisible King, was set apart to the service of the tabernacle, and the altar (that is, in a political view, to be the courtiers of the KING), and to all those offices of state in which learning was requisite, and thus to the cultivation of learning itself. The princes of tribes and heads of families, however, still retained their ancient honours, and the members of other tribes were permitted to hold civil offices, and to apply themselves to the sciences. Thus, on the one hand, the advantages of this institution were secured, and the educated parent was able to instruct his son in the sciences, and to prepare him for public employment; while, on the other hand, its disadvantages were avoided, and learning did not, as in Egypt, become the mystery of the learned order, nor was civil government transformed into a domination of priests. Moses, certainly, can never be justly accused of introducing regulations which tended to keep the people in ignorance, for every individual of whatever tribe who had capacity, desire, and leisure to apply himself to study, was at full liberty to devote himself to letters, while more than a fiftieth part of the whole nation were expressly set apart to promote the progress of knowledge.

In order to answer the end for which they were destined, the Levites were, more than the other Hebrews, to study the book of the law,—to preserve and disseminate correct copies of it, to perform the duties of judges and genealogists,-and, consequently, to be theologians, jurists, and historians.§ As the priests and Levites were to try the accuracy of weights and measures, of which there were several models preserved in the sanctuary, it was necessary that they should understand something of mathematics; and as they were to determine and announce the moveable feasts, new moons, years, and intercalary, they were obliged to know something of astronomy. The priests were to instruct the people in religion and the law, and to solve such questions as might arise on these subjects. The spirit of the institution made the Levites also instructors of the people. It was undoubtedly their duty to read the law every seventh year to the assembled people; and, under the arrangements of David, they sang psalms and cultivated music. As the priests by their exhortations were to rouse the courage of the soldiers when about to engage in battle, they probably paid some attention to eloquence; and as they had to perform the duty of police physicians, it was necessary they should know something of the art of medicine.++ It was the duty of the high-priest, as head

• Deut. xxv. 1-8, xix. 12, xxii. 15, xxv. 7, 9; Judg. viii. 14; 1 Sam. xvi. 4; Judg. xx. 1-14, xxi. 1—11.

"It was the less to be expected that discontent should arise on this score, as the Hebrews had seen in Egypt a similar institution productive of great public benefit. The Egyptian priests were a separate caste, divided into three subordinate classes. They performed not only the religious rites, but the duties of all the civil offices for which learning was necessary. They, therefore, devoted themselves in a peculiar manner to the cultivation of the sciences. This learned nobility, so to speak, was strictly hereditary, and no one from another tribe could be received among its members. They studied natural philosophy, natural history, medicine, mathematics, particularly astronomy and geometry, history, civil polity, and jurisprudence. They were practising physicians, inspectors of weights and measures, surveyors of land, astronomical calculators, keepers of the archives, historiaus, receivers of the customs, judges and counsellors of the king, who himself belonged to their caste. In short, like Jethro the priest of Midian, and Melchizedek the priest and king of Salem, they formed, guided, and ruled the people by establishing civil regulations, performing sacred services, and imparting religious instruction. They were liberally rewarded for the discharge of these important duties; not only by possessing large estates in land, which, if we may credit Diodorus Siculus, occupied a third part of all Egypt, but also by receiving from the king a stated salary for their civil employment. However suspicious such an order may appear to many at the present day, it was admirably adapted to those times, and by means of it Egypt was raised far above all the nations of antiquity, both in regard to her civil institutions and her advancement in the sciences. Hence even the Greeks, in ancient times, were accustomed to borrow their politics and their learning from the Egyptians. If then an institution, in many respects so useful, could be adopted by the Hebrews in such a manner as to retain its advantages, and reject, as far as possible, its faults, it was evidently the wisest measure which that people could adopt.”— § Num. xvi. 2-7; 1 Chrou. xxiii. 4, xxv. 29; 2 Chron. xix. 8, xxxiv. 13. Deut, x. 10, xxviii. 11; Lev. xxv. 8-12. ** Deut. xxxi. 11, 12; 1 Chron. xxiii. 5; 2 Chron. xvii. 7-9.

JAHN.

Exod. xxxii. 26-29.

Deut. xvii. 9; Mal. ii. 4-7.

tt Deut. xx. 2; Lev. xiii. xiv.