they were themselves the special objects of his care: for it is a fact that the most vigilant enemies of the nation never took advantage of these seemingly favourable occasions; in consequence of which the Jews, though by no means over-ready to believe the divine promises, learned to leave their dwellings and families without the least apprehension of danger. According to the practice of the Orientals, they travelled in large parties, all belonging to a particular town or district forming one company, taking the necessaries for their journey with them.* It was among such a "company" that Joseph and Mary sought Jesus Christ,† who had remained behind at Jerusalem. Reserving some remarks on the general purposes and uses of these institutions, we may now proceed to notice them severally. 1. The Passover, kept in remembrance of their departure from Egypt. The occasion of this institution has been duly noticed in the History. It was to commence on the evening subsequent to the fourteenth day of the first moon of the second year, with eating what was called the Paschal Lamb, and was to continue seven whole days, that is, till the twenty-first. Although moons which began with the new moon cannot, with perfect accuracy, be accommodated to our months, the first moon of the Hebrew year must always have fallen within the month of April. During the whole of this festival the people ate unleavened bread, whence it is sometimes called the Feast of Unleavened Bread. On the eve of the fourteenth the leaven was removed from all dwellings, so that nothing might be seen of it during the week; a circumstance respecting which the Jews are very scrupulous even at this day.§ Previously to the commencement of the feast, on the tenth, the master of a family set apart a ram or a goat of a year old, usually the former,|| which he slew on the fourteenth, "between the two evenings," before the altar; ¶ but in Egypt, where the event occurred which the Passover celebrated, the blood was sprinkled on the post of the door.** The ram or kid was roasted whole, with two spits thrust through it, the one lengthwise, the other transversely, crossing the longitudinal one near the fore legs, so that the animal was, in a manner, crucified. The oven in which it was roasted was the circular pit in the floor [ground], which is still commonly used in the East. The restriction that it was to be roasted, not boiled or eaten raw, is thought to be levelled at some idolatrous forms of sacrifice-feasting. Thus roasted, the Paschal Lamb was served up with a salad of wild and bitter herbs, and with the flesh of other sacrifices (peace-offerings), which are mentioned in Deut. xvi. 2-6. Not fewer than ten, nor more than twenty persons were admitted to these sacred feasts, which were, at first, eaten, in Egypt, with loins girt about, with sandals on the feet, and with all the preparations for an immediate journey. But this does not appear to have been the case at any subsequent period. The command, however, not to break a bone of the offering, which was given in consequence of the people going in such haste (as they might otherwise have been delayed), was ever after observed among the Jews.†† In later times the celebration became encumbered with a number of involved ceremonies, very different from the simplicity and haste of the original institution. As these derive no authority from the law, we shall only state such of them as serve to illustrate the account of that celebration of the Passover by Jesus Christ, which to the Christian is not less interesting than the original institution was to the Jew. The master of the family, after the Paschal supper was prepared, broke the bread, having * We think not tents, as some suppose. Tents are seldom used by travellers but in long journeys, or for women. A party, composed almost exclusively of men, and having only a comparatively short distance to go, in the finest seasons of the year, would despise the luxury and parade of tents, which also would have greatly increased the expense, as cattle would have been necessary to carry them. + Luke ii. 44. Exod. xii. 18, xiii. 6, 7; Lev. xxiii 6; Num. xxviii. 17. § 1 Cor. v. 7. | Exod. xii. 1-6. None but male victims were allowed. Herodotus says the Egyptians sacrificed none but male victims (Euterpe, 41), whereas females were preferred by most other nations. Many have thought that the selection of a ram was designed to cast contempt upon the Egyptian worship rendered to that creature when the sun entered Aries, which was about the time of the Hebrew festival. Other designed oppositions to the Egyptian forms of sacrifice have also been found in the manner in which the passover victim was prepared; but they seem little better than conjectures. The Jewish writers inform us that it became usual to keep the selected ram tied to the bed-post of the person who proposed to offer it, from the tenth to the fourteenth, that it might be under constant observation. Deut. xvi. 2, 56. **Exod. xii. 7. tt John xix. 36. first blessed it, and then distributed it to all who are seated around him, so that each one might receive a part;* and each was at liberty to dip it, before eating, into a vessel of sauce.† There were four cups of wine ordinarily drunk at this supper, two before and two after meat. With the second, the two first hymns of what was called the lesser Hallel, being Psalms cxiii. and cxiv., were sung or chanted. The third cup, being the first after supper, was called the cup of blessing, because over it they blessed God, or said grace after meat. This was followed by a fourth and last cup,§ over which they completed the hymn of praise, formed by the remainder of the lesser Hallel,|| and thus the feast concluded. But it is said that a fifth cup of wine might be drunk by those who wished to repeat the great Hallel, which is generally understood to be Psalm cxxxvi. The wine was red, mixed with water. The Passover was immediately followed by the Feast of Unleavened Bread, which lasted seven days, so that the two together seemed to make one feast of eight days, and were, in fact, popularly so considered, the names being often interchanged, so that the Passover day was sometimes considered as the first day of the feast of unleavened bread, and, on the other hand, the whole was often called the Passover Feast. The first and last days of these seven were to be kept as Sabbaths, save that only servile labour was interdicted which allowed food to be cooked. But no suspension of labour was required on the intermediate five days, which were distinguished chiefly by the abstinence from leavened bread, and by the unusual number of offerings at the tabernacle or temple, and of sacrifices for sin.** The sixteenth of Abib, or the second day of Unleavened Bread, was distinguished by the offering of a barley-sheaf, as an introduction to the barley-harvest, which was ripe about this time, accompanied by a particular sacrifice, described in Lev. xxiii. 9-14. It appears that those whose occasions required it were allowed to return home immediately after they had eaten the Passover, without staying through the week of unleavened bread.†† Michaelis imagines, with great probability, that this indulgence was granted for this reason; that, if the month Abib‡‡ happened to fall late, the season would be so far advanced by the fourteenth that the barley-harvest would be quite ripe for the sickle in the week commencing with the fifteenth, in consequence of which the collection of the crop would have been much hindered by an obligatory stay at the seat of the tabernacle. Thus, for instance, if the month Abib began on April seventeenth, the festival would not commence till the first of May, by which time the harvest is always ready to commence in the southern parts of Palestine. 2. The Feast of Pentecost is called by various names in the Sacred Writings; as the feast of weeks,§§ because of its being celebrated a week of weeks, or seven weeks, after the feast of unleavened bread; the feast of harvest,|||| and also the day of first fruits,¶¶ for this was properly the harvest festival at which the Israelites were to offer thanksgivings to God for the bounties of harvest, and to present to him the first fruits thereof in bread baked of the new corn.* *** It seems, in fact, that the barley harvest commenced about the Passover, and the wheat harvest ended at the Pentecost in Palestine, where, as in Egypt, the barley is ripe considerably earlier than the wheat. This festival lasted for seven days, during which many holocausts and offerings for sin were sacrificed. In later times many Jews from foreign countries came to Jerusalem on this joyful occasion.ttt Even at that time, and still more since then, a greater degree of relative importance seems to have been attached to this festival than appears to have been designed by the law. It was discovered that the date, fifty days after the Passover, coincided with the delivery of the law from Mount Sinai, which was fifty days after the departure from Egypt, and, consequently, after the first Passover. Hence, by degrees, instead of resting on the ground on which Moses placed it, the festival was turned into a commemoration of that great event. 3. Feast of Tabernacles. This feast was instituted in memory of the journey through the Matt. xxvi. 26; Mark xiv. 22; Luke xxii. 19; 1 Cor. xi. 23, 24. + Matt. xxvi. 21-25; Mark xiv. 18-21; John xiii. 26. 1 Cor. x. 16. § Matt. xxvi. 27; Mark xiv. 23; Luke xxii. 20. Matt. xxvi. 30; Mark xiv. 26. ¶Compare Exod. xii. 18; Num. xxviii. 16, 17; Matt. xxvi. 17; Mark xiv. 12. ** Num. xxviii. 16-25. ++ Deut. xvi. 7. ‡‡ Ear-moon, because ripe ears of coru could always be had in that month. Exod. xxiii. 16. ¶¶ Num. xvi. 26. ttt Joseph, de Bell. ii. 3. Compare Acts-ii. 3–15. §§ Exod. xxxiv. 22; Deut. xvi. 10, 16. *** Exod. xxiii. 16; Lev. xxiii. 14–21; Num. xxviii. 26-31. Arabian wilderness, and therefore the people, during its continuance, dwelt in booths. This lasted seven days, from the 15th to the 22nd of the seventh month, Tishri (October). It is usual to state that another object of this feast was as a Feast of In-gathering, to return thanks, and to rejoice for the completed vintage and gathering in of the fruits. But a close examination will make it probable that this was the separate object of the eighth day, which was added to the seven: for it was only during the seven days that the people were to dwell in booths. Being thus closely connected, they got to be regarded as one festival, and the names were confounded and interchanged, as in the analogous case of the Passover and Feast of Unleavened Bread. Instead, therefore, of regarding this as one festival of eight days, with two names and two objects, it seems best to regard it as a union of two festivals with different names and objects, the one of seven days and the other of one day.* As in the other festivals of a week's duration, the first and last days were to be observed as Sabbaths, with the exception that only servile labour was interdicted.† On the other five days any kind of work might be executed. During all the seven the people were to live in booths made of branches of several sorts of trees, which, as mentioned in Lev. xxiii. 40, are the palm, the willow, and two others, which seem to denote "beautiful trees," and any "thick or bushy wood,"§ rather than any particular species. Those named in Nehem. viii. 15 are different, and it seems reasonable to conclude that it was not the intention of the law to compel the use of any particular species, but only of such as were suitable for the purpose and could be easily procured. It is not expressly said in the law that the booths were to be made with those branches, though the language of the text,|| with the context, obviously leads to that conclusion. It was so understood in the time of Nehemiah. But the Sadducees and Pharisees, in later days, split on this point; the former understanding that the booths were to be made of the boughs, while the latter contended that they were to be borne rejoicingly in the hands. The latter practice prevailed in the time of Christ, as it does to this day. The Karaites, however, follow the interpretation of the Sadducees, which seems to be the right one, although it must be confessed that the Israelites did not in the Arabian wilderness dwell in green booths, but in tents. It seems that the people often made their booths on the flat roofs of their houses. More public sacrifices were to be offered on this festival than on any of the others, as may be seen in Num. xxix. 12-39. This feast was celebrated with more of outward glee than any others, though without intemperance, to which the Hebrews, as a nation, do not appear to have been ever much addicted. The ceremonies of parading in procession with branches, chanting hosannas, and of drawing water from the pool of Siloam, to pour out, mixed with wine, on the sacrifice as it lay on the altar, existed in the time of Christ, and before; but they have no such connexion with the law of Moses as to require particular notice in this place. The eighth day, which we regard as the proper Feast of In-gathering, was kept as a Sabbath (and sometimes must actually have been one), like the first of the tabernacle feasts. Notwithstanding its being a distinct festival, the sacrifices for it were less than those of any of the preceding seven days.** The important influence of these festivals, involving the meeting of the mass of the male population in one place three times every year, cannot be too highly estimated. The journey itself, taking place at the finest seasons of the year, was less likely to be considered as a grievance than as a recreative excursion, in so small a country as that which the Hebrews were destined to occupy. The primary design of these re-unions appears to have been to counteract the dividing tendency of the separation into clans, or tribes, by bringing them into contact on an equal footing, under circumstances calculated to bring before them the conviction of their common origin and common objects, sons of the same father, worshippers of the same God, and heirs of the same promises. The beginnings of idolatry were also likely to be checked * Exod. xxiii. 16; Lev. xxiii. 34, 36, 39, 42, 43; Deut. xvi. 13–16; Neh. viii. 18; John vii. 2, 37. Lev. xxiii. 40. by the frequent renewal of these acts of worship and homage. Persons of distant towns and different tribes met together on terms of brotherhood and fellowship; and old relations were renewed, and new ones formed. Several sections are devoted by Michaelis to the statement of the political and other advantages resulting from these festivals. Among other considerations, he observes, that if any of the tribes happened to be jealous of each other, or, as was sometimes the case, involved in civil war, still their meeting together in one place for the purposes of religion and sociality had a tendency to prevent their being completely alienated, and forming themselves into two or more unconnected states; and even though this had at any time happened, it gave them an opportunity of again cementing their differences, and re-uniting. This is so correctly true, that the separation of the ten tribes from the tribe of Judah, under Rehoboam and Jeroboam, could never have been permanent, had not the latter abrogated one part of the Law of Moses relative to festivals. Another effect of these meetings regarded the internal commerce of the Israelites. From the annual conventions of the whole people of any country for religious purposes, there generally arise, even without any direct intention on their part, annual fairs and internal commerce. Such festivals have always been attended with this effect. The famous old fair near Hebron arose from the congregation of pilgrims to the terebinth-tree of Abraham. The yearly fairs among the Germans had a similar origin. Among the Mahomedans similar festivals have always had the same results. Witness the annual pilgrimage to Mecca, which, in spite of many adverse circumstances, has given birth to one of the greatest markets in the world. Now the very same effects, and to a still higher degree, must, even without any intention on the part of the legislator, have resulted from the high festivals of the Hebrews, to which the whole people were bound to assemble; and more particularly as far as regards internal trade. Let us only figure to ourselves what would necessarily follow from such festivals being established. Every man would bring along with him every portable article which he could spare, and which he wished to turn into money; and as several individuals would go from the same place, they would contrive various expedients to render their goods portable; and this would be the more readily suggested by the habit of taking things, some of them needing carriage, to Jerusalem, as dues and offerings. Nor are means of conveyance expensive in the East, as they consist not, as with us, of waggons and horses, but of asses and camels-beasts which are highly serviceable in promoting the internal traffic of Syria and Arabia. There could never be any want of buyers, where the whole people were convened; and the wholesale merchants would soon find it for their advantage to attend, and purchase the commodities offered for sale by individuals, especially manufactured goods. Whoever wished to purchase any particular articles would await the festivals in order to have a choice; and this, too, would lead great merchants to attend with all manner of goods for sale, for which they could hope to find purchasers. However, therefore, Moses may have desired to discourage the Israelites from engaging in foreign commerce, his measures were, in this instance at least, and whether intended or not, highly favourable to the internal intercourse and traffic of the country. 4. The Day of Atonement.—This was an annual Fast, and the only one prescribed by the law, however fasts may abound in the present calendar of the Jews. It occurred on the fifth day before the Feast of Tabernacles, or on the tenth day of the seventh month, Tishri (October). On this day they were to abstain from all servile work, to take no food "from evening to evening," during which they were to "afflict their souls." The sacrificial services of this day were the most solemn in all the year, and deserve to be considered with much attention. The sacred services of the day were conducted by the high priest himself, and the following ceremonies, which differed from those used on other occasions, were performed by him alone. When he had washed himself in water, he put on the dress of white linen which he wore only on this day. Then he conducted to the altar a bullock destined to be slain for the sins of himself and his family; also two goats for the sins of the people, the one of which was selected by lot to be sacrificed to God; the other was permitted to make an unmolested escape.* He proceeded to slay the bullock for his own sins, and the goat on which the lot had fallen to be offered for the sins of the people. He then filled a censer with burning coals from the altar, and putting two handfuls of incense into a vase, he bore them into the Holy of Holies, which on this day only he might enter.† Having here poured the incense on the coals, he returned, took the blood of the bullock and the goat, and went again into the Most Holy Place. There he, with his finger, first sprinkled the blood of the bullock, and afterwards of the goat, upon the lid of the ark, and seven times also he sprinkled it on the floor before the ark. He then returned from the Most Holy into the Holy Place, or sanctuary, and besmeared the "horns" of the golden altar with the blood of the bullock and the goat, and scattered the blood seven times over the surface of the altar. All this was done as an expiation for the uncleanness and the sins of the children of Israel during the past year.‡ The high priest then went out into the court of the tabernacle, and placed his hands with great solemnity on the head of the scape-goat, which symbolically represented that the animal was thereby laden with the sins of the people. It was then delivered to a man who led it away into the wilderness, and there let it go free, to signify the liberation of the Israelites from the punishment due to their sins. But the goat which was slain for the sins of the people, and the bullock slain for those of the high priest, were designed to signify that they were guilty, and that they merited punishment; and they were burnt whole, beyond the limits of the camp or of the city.§ After this the high-priest, putting off his white vestments, and assuming the splendid robes of his office, sacrificed a burnt-offering, and then offered another sin-offering, with which the striking services of this day concluded.|| Having noticed the weekly, monthly, and annual feasts, we have now to direct our attention to those extraordinary festivals which were only celebrated after the recurrence of a certain number of years. THE SABBATIC YEAR.-The Sabbath, or rest," ordained for men and cattle every seventh day, was extended to the land itself every seventh year, during which the owners were to let it lie fallow. There was no sowing or reaping, the vines and the olives were not pruned, there was no vintage, no gathering of fruits, even of that which grew wild; for all spontaneous productions were to be left to the poor, the wayfaring stranger, and the cattle. This year commenced with the first day of the month Tishri, which was the first of the civil and the seventh of the sacred year. The Feast of Tabernacles commenced on the fifteenth of the same month, and on that occasion, in this year, the law was to be publicly read for eight days together in the tabernacle or temple. Moses manifests great earnestness in giving this command, and exhorts not only the men, but women, children, and even strangers, to avail themselves of this opportunity of instruction in the law. It is observable, indeed, that no other public reading of the law than this is commanded by the law itself. On account of no income arising from the soil during this year, no debts could be collected in it.** They were not, however, cancelled, as many writers have imagined; for we find in Deut. xv. 9, that the Hebrews were admonished not to deny money to the poor on account of the approach of the sabbatical year, during which it could not be exacted; but nothing beyond this can be educed from the passage. Nor does it seem that servants were, as usually stated, manumitted on this periodical seventh year, but on the seventh year of their individual service.tt It is not to be supposed that this year of rest to the land was necessarily spent by the Lev. xvi. 6-10. + When the tabernacle was to be removed and set up again, the inner sanctuary might safely be entered, but not at other times. Lev. xvi. 11-19. § Lev. xvi. 20-22, 26-28. Lev. xvi. 1-34; Num. xxix. 1-11; Jahn's B. A. Th. iii. sect. 76. |