envelope as described, it will not suggest that comparison; but may be rather supposed to denote the construction of a stiff cap, formed by bands of linen wound over and sewed on another, and the whole made to present a smooth and even appearance.

In this point of view it may appear to have been similar in general purpose and make to the head-cap, divested of the superior ornaments, in the annexed engravings (5); but it is hard to say which of them it may have most resembled in shape. It was not conical; and this stipulation concerning the priest's bonnet, as distinguished from the mitre of the high-priest, doubtless indicates that to have been conical. The predominance of the conical form in the Egyptian mitres is shown by our cut. We do not imagine that the mitre of the Jewish highpriest was like any of these. They were too much charged with the emblems and symbols of false gods to remain unaltered. But we think they show that the Hebrew mitre was something of the same kind, with the same arrangement of parts, and equally imposing. Here is first the cap for the head; then, above that, another cap, or towering ornament, of different colour, often of a conical shape, terminating sometimes in a cup or calyx. This is supported by a golden border, generally representing horns, and generally ornamented with a figure of the sun. Both these were idolatrous symbols, the one of the moon and the other of the sun. The golden crown, of which Josephus speaks, appears to have been of late introduction. But we may see that the Egyptian symbols, denoting the idolatrous appropriation, were very markedly displaced by the plate of gold which the law directed to be tied, with a blue lace, in front of the mitre, bearing the appropriative words, P, HOLINESS TO JEHOVAH. Although, therefore, we think that the mitre cannot be identified with any of our specimens, it was a head-dress much of the same class, and not differing more from those of the Egyptian priests than these differed from one another.

4. The Mantle, or, as it is called in our version, "the robe of the ephod," was worn over the inner tunic or shirt. Except in colour and ornaments, it seems to have differed little from a robe of the same name worn by the more wealthy of the laity. This of the high-priest was of sky blue. At the top, surrounding the neck, it had a strong binding of woven-work, that it might not be rent, and the bottom had a kind of border or fringe, composed of tassels made of blue, purple, and scarlet, in the form of pomegranates, interspersed with small bells of gold, which gave a tinkling sound when the wearer moved.*

The further descriptions of Josephus and other Jewish writers would intimate that it was without sleeves, having a hole or slit on each side to put the arms through. He adds, that it reached to the feet, contrary to the usual pictures, which, for the sake of showing the under tunic [which appears to us to have been a plain skirt], make it come but little below the

[6. Egyptian Tunic.]

knees. The description agrees, in general terms, with the general character of the Egyptian outer robes represented in our cuts. It is true they have all sleeves; but if we are to insist, from Josephus, that the mantle had no sleeves, then we may mention that there are instances at Thebes of priests wearing over the shirt a loose robe which is sleeveless, and which exposes the sleeves of the inner tunic. To us the descriptions suggest the notion of an abba, an outer article of dress common among the Arabs of Syria and Arabia, and is also, after them, much used by the townspeople. This is frequently represented in our illustrations from modern Oriental sources. Josephus also describes it as all of one piece, like our Saviour's robe,§ which is another characteristic of the abba. We will not, therefore, contend that this was an Egyptian article of priestly dress. The Hebrews may have worn something of the sort before and after in ordinary life.

Exod. xxviii. 31-34.

+ Antiq. iii. 7.

But not among those of Egypt and Barbary, who use the large folding burnous.

§ John xix. 23.

But if they had something answering to the abba, so had the Egyptians; and it happens that the robe which exhibits this correspondence (6) agrees better with the description than does the abba now in use. It has, for instance, a deep fringe, which the abba wants.

And here we may observe that the fringe of bells and pomegranates was obviously intended as a priestly substitute for the fringe bound with blue ribbon which all the Israelites were enjoined to wear. Now of this fringe we may remark, that there are many traces of it among the dresses represented in the Egyptian remains. These fringes were only the ends of the threads composing the woof, left to prevent the threads from unravelling. The blue ribbon which the Hebrews were directed to add would, of course, strengthen it, and prevent it from rending.*

5. The Ephod.-Another peculiar portion of the official dress of the high-priest was the ephod. This was a very rich and splendid piece of dress, and is also one of those which is the most particularly described, although more with reference. to its materials than to its form. It was a kind of brocade, made of byssus and gold thread interwoven, and adorned (in figures of some kind, probably) with scarlet, purple, and blue. The accounts given of it by different writers, even among the Jews, vary greatly. Josephus, who, of course, knew what was worn in his time, calls it a short coat, and gives it sleeves, which no other authority assigns to it. Jerome compares it to the short Roman cloak called caracalla, but without the hood. Calmet makes it to have been a sort of sash. The more general account, however, supposes that it was, at least, originally, without sleeves, and consisted of two pieces, of which that behind reached from the shoulders, downward, to below the buttocks [others, nearly to the feet], while the front part descended quite or nearly to the loins. If this description might be relied on, the dress would, in its general purpose and proportion of descent before and behind, answer to, and

probably be intended to supersede, the leopardskin, which, as shown in cut 7, was sometimes worn by the highest order of Egyptian priests when engaged in the most important functions of their service. But while we are thus prepared to meet this alternative, if any, on rabbinical authority, and insist on this form of the ephod, we are ourselves more disposed to complete, from Josephus, the brief indications of the text, and then, we apprehend the result will offer something very like that curt and very splendid outer robe, which, as shown in cut 8, and in that which has been placed at the head of this chapter, was worn by priests of the highest rank, when discharging their most sacred functions. It was worn even by the sovereign when engaged, as high-priest, in offering sacrifice or incense to the gods. It has the merit also of providing explanations which have been found in no other form of the ephod which has

This is the obvious secondary effect. The primary reason assigned, that on looking at this fringe the Lord's commandments might be remembered, has so little apparent connection, that it cannot be explained without supposing that the Egyptians, or others who used the fringe, connected some superstitious ideas with it. + Exod. xxviii. 9-12.

been suggested. This is in the " shoulder-pieces," the use of which commentators have been sorely perplexed to make compatible with the form they assign to the ephod. According to our proposed illustration, it is not only explicable, but necessary. It is seen that the robe as represented is properly a rich skirt or apron, varying in length, but generally reaching from below the paps to the knees. In this form it must have had some support, in the shape of straps or braces to prevent it from slipping down. Now this support it actually received, either in straps passing over the shoulders (as in fig. 4 of cut 2; see also cut 3), when the priest wore no collar; but when a collar was worn there were straps connecting the collar with the ephod, which thus obtained the requisite support. Here, then, we have the shoulderpieces, which have occasioned so much difficulty, and which, in the dress of the Jewish highpriest, bore, immediately on the shoulders, two onyx stones, set in gold, on which were engraved the names of the twelve tribes, six on each stone, in the order of their birth. In its immediate use, this ornament, perhaps, served as a button to connect the strap behind with the strap before [for there seems to have been no collar], or else to cover the point where this junction was there made by other means.

The prohibition of idolatrous and superstitious images and figures must greatly have modified the appearance of this article of ceremonial dress; for, in the Egyptian specimens, we see it highly charged with all kinds of idolatrous figures and symbols, and even with scenes of human immolation.

6. The curious girdle of the ephod was of the same substance as the ephod itself, doubtless corresponded to that rich and narrow girdle which passes round the ephod, at the loins, in the Egyptian examples which we offer.

7. The Breastplate.-This splendid ornament consisted of a piece of the rich brocade of the ephod. It was a span square when doubled, which it was, to strengthen it to bear the precious stones which were set in it. These stones were twelve, of as many different kinds, each bearing the name of one of the tribe of Israel. They were arranged in four rows, of three in each row. This magnificent piece of jewelled work was worn upon the breast, over the ephod. It had at each corner a gold ring, from the two uppermost of which went two golden chains of wreathed work, to connect it with the shoulder-pieces of the ephod, while, from the rings below, similar chains joined it to the girdle of the ephod.

In this we see an adaptation and correction of an Egyptian custom, under which the

higher Egyptian priests wore a large and splendid ornament upon the breast. It was generally an idolatrous symbol-often a winged scarabæus-the emblem of the sun, as in the annexed example, in which we even see the connecting ring and chain, although only, in this instance, to fasten it to the girdle.

8. The Urim and Thummim, by means of which the high-priest obtained responses from God was certainly either connected or identical with the breastplate, and, on account of it, that ornament itself was sometimes called the breastplate of judgment. Some writers, whose authority is now much followed, think that the urim and thummim § was merely a sacred lot, afforded by three precious stones contained in a purse or bag, formed by the lining or interior of the breastplate. According to this conjecture, on one of the stones was engraven, yes;

"It shall have the two shoulder-pieces thereof joined at the two edges thereof, and so it shall be joined together," Exod. xxviii. 7.

+ Exod. xxviii. 9, 10.

Exod. xxviii. 8.

, light and truth, or justice. Sept. dnλwors nai àλna.

on the other, no; the third being destitute of any inscription; and that the question was to be proposed in such a form that an affirmative or negative answer might suffice. Then the answer was determined by the stone which the high-priest drew forth, the blank stone intimating that no answer was to be given. This seems better than the dreams of the rabbins, who teach that the answer was conveyed by the supernatural irradiation or development of such of the letters graven on the breastplate [contained in the names of the twelve tribes] as were needed to spell out the answer. According to this, it follows that the urim and thummim was no other than the breastplate itself, and, although the subject is one of considerable difficulty, we are rather disposed to concur in that opinion. But the notion as to the manner in which the response was given by this breastplate appears to us the most awkward and improbable contrivance that can be imagined. It seems more likely, and much more seemly, that the breastplate merely qualified the high-priest to seek and to receive an answer when he presented himself, wearing it, before the inner veil of the tabernacle, and that then the answer was conveyed to him in an audible voice, from the mercy-seat, beyond the veil. This agrees also with the frequent notice of the response as being from "the mouth of the Lord."

Anything analogous to the urim and thummim, whichever interpretation be taken, few readers would expect to derive from the ancient usages of Egypt. But it happens that the illustration which the old writers on the subject were in the habit of most frequently adducing is found in this. On account of the difference of purpose, we are, upon the whole, inclined to lay less stress upon this instance than upon some others which we have now ourselves first produced, from newly opened sources; but it is, however, too remarkable to be overlooked.

"When a case was brought for trial," says Sir J. G. Wilkinson," it was customary for the arch-judge to put a golden chain around his neck, to which was suspended a small figure of Truth, ornamented with precious stones. This was, in fact, a representation of the goddess who was worshipped under the double character of truth and justice, and whose name, Thmei,* appears to have been the origin of the Hebrew thummim,† a word, according to the Septuagint translation, implying truth, and bearing a further analogy in its plural termination. And what makes it more remarkable is, that the chief priest of the Jews, who, before the election of a king, was also the judge of the nation, was alone entitled to wear this honorary badge; and the thummim of the Hebrews, like the Egyptian figure, was studded with precious stones."

This is certainly a remarkable set of coincidences; but it ought to be stated, that although the Jewish high-priest was a judge, he did not wear his breastplate in his judicial capacity, in which capacity alone the arch-judge of the Egyptians wore his badge of truth and justice.

The Scripture affords no instance in which the Lord was consulted by urim and thummim later than the time of David.

II.-SACRED PLACES.

I. Altars, Groves, Stones of Memorial.-These are mentioned in such a way as to intimate that some degree of sanctity was attached to them; and they may all be traced back to the earliest times. The first men doubtless believed in that grand truth, which ONE greater than Moses inculcated in a later age-"God is a spirit; and they that worship him must worship him in spirit and in truth." Believing this,-that this Divine Spirit filled all things, and was equally present in all parts of His creation, they could have no sacred places, but worshipped God wherever and whenever their hearts were drawn forth towards Him, in veneration, gratitude, or love. Those who do not-and who does?-disbelieve the influence which "The Egyptian or Coptic name of justice or truth. Hence the sus of the Greeks."

+ "Lord Prudhoe has very ingeniously suggested that the urim is derived from the two asps or basilisks, urei, which were the emblems of royalty in Egypt. Ouro is the Egyptian word implying a king." Exod. xxviii. 20.

§ “The goddess frequently occurs in the sculptures in the double capacity, represented by two figures exactly similar."-Sir J. G. Wilkinson gives these figures in his Ancient Egyptians,' Nos. 83, 84.

VOL. I.

21

circumstances may exercise upon the mind-solemnizing, softening, or abasing man in his own eyes,—and in the same degree magnifying the loving-kindness and greatness of God,— will find no difficulty in understanding that such drawings forth of the soul were most frequently experienced upon the mountain-tops, and under the shade of groves, which last is, in eastern climes, especially gratifying and solemnizing, by virtue of the more marked contrast with the consuming heat and bold garish light of the open plains. Therefore men did most frequently worship upon the tops of mountains and in groves; and when they had altars, there they built them; and when, from any circumstance, an altar had been built in some other situation, for reasons of much mark and interest to him who built it, it was not unfrequent for him to plant around it the grove which nature had not given. There are examples of all this in the patriarchal history; and it was all very proper and reasonable. It was also natural that, in process of time, a degree of peculiar sacredness should be attached to those places where men habitually rendered worship to God, and sought his favour with sacrifices and offerings; and this not, as we take it, so much because the man himself rendered there his devotional services, as because such services might be supposed to draw the Divine regard with more especial favour and acceptance to that spot-especially when that spot had once or oftener been distinguished by some sensible evidence of the Divine presence. In fact, it would not be easy to say that any place was counted sacred by the patriarchs except those places where the Lord had appeared to them; and the sanctity attached to the place seems to have been in proportion to the frequency or signal character of such manifestation. We see this very pointedly in the origin of the sacred character of the place near Luz, where Jacob rested on his journey to Mesopotamia. He saw there a vision of God and his angels, and, when he awoke, his exclamation developed the operation and character of those ideas to which we are ascribing the origin of sacredness, as applied to one place more than to another. Surely the Lord is in this place," he cried, “and I knew it not!" And he was afraid, and said, "How dreadful is this place! This is none other but the house of God, and this is the gate of heaven." And he set up a stone as a pillar,* and anointed it-to mark the place as sanctified, and he vowed that if he were spared to return, at a future day, to his father's house in peace, that the stone which he had set up for a pillar should be "God's house." By this he did not mean that he would there build a house for the services of God. This was very far from his idea: he had no house himself, nor did his habits lead him to think of houses: but he meant that he would regard it as a place where God manifested his peculiar presence, and which was therefore eminently suitable for a place of worship and offering.

Thus, then, we see that any degree of sacredness which was, in the most ancient times, ascribed to places, was not owing to the acts of worship performed there, but to the supposed consequences of these acts, as drawing the Divine complacency to the spots in which they were habitually performed. Or, again, the sacredness of a spot resulted from the spontaneous manifestation of the Divine presence-as frequently in the Lord's appearances to the patriarchs-in consequence of which the spot was regarded as peculiarly honoured, and hence suitable for appropriation to acts of worship and thanksgiving, and was set apart as such by altars, or by erected stones, or by planted groves, or by any two of these, or by all three. Thus, every way, it was nothing less or more than the peculiar presence of the Divinity, which was deemed to give its sanctity to the places which were in any degree accounted holy.

But in process of time, as men sank into idolatry, the use of worshipping on high places and in groves, and even at altars, became abominable. Practices, innocent in themselves, or even suitable, became defiled by unholy use, and could be no longer tolerated. Hence, as the worship in groves and on high places admitted of no formal modification, the practices were utterly forbidden to the Israelites. On high places they might not build their altars; nor were they to form plantations, or to have trees in or around the places where they worshipped God; that the rites of his worship might be openly displayed to the light of day, and that no obscure and gloomy shades might tempt to such obscene and horrid rites as those by which

• We do not here enlarge on this subject of memorial stones, as we design to give it a more full consideration than would be suitable in this place.