PART III. TREATMENT OF ARGUMENT AND PERSUASION. 1. Argument-inferring the Effect-some Condition. 3. Moral Evidence-Demonstrative. Observation. Experience. 4. General Experience. Contradictory to Experience. 6. Testimony. Modifications of Testimony. 8. The Evidence of which different subjects admit. Metaphor. Presumption. Proving a Negative. 12. Figure of Syllogism-Mode, and Reduction. 13. Division of Arguments. 14. Enthymeme. Sophism. 15. Fallacies-Prejudices, Observation, Generalization, Ratiocination, and Confusion. 16. Promiscuous Examples. 17. Parsing; Grammatical Analysis-Logical and Rhetorical. 18. Persuasion. Questions. 1.-ARGUMENT. Arguments may be divided into two classes; 1, inferring the effect; and 2, some condition. ARGUMENTS INFERRING THE EFFECT. There has been a heavy fall of rain, therefore the river floods the meadow. The premiss, or argument, "There has been a heavy fall of rain," proves or accounts for the conclusion, "the river floods the meadow." ARGUMENTS INFERRING SOME CONDITION. The mercury sinks, therefore it will rain. The antecedent, "The sinking of the mercury," is not the cause of rain. It is only a condition, or sign, of the existence of the effect. The plant was not covered with a mat, therefore it was destroyed. The absence of the covering is only a condition, or circumstance, without which the cause, the frost, could not have operated. The wound is fatal, therefore death must ensue. The effect may be inferred from the cause, but not the cause from the effect. Many other causes may pro duce the same effect. The general is skilful, therefore he is successful. The cause is a probable condition. Were he not skilful, it is probable that he would not be successful. The general is successful, therefore he is skilful. The cause is inferred from the effect. His success is a probable condition of his skill. A man was found dead in a house; in his breast was a bleeding wound; a person, who had a bloody knife in his possession, was observed running out of the house; no other person was found on the spot; therefore, he was the murderer. For the conditions, or circumstances mentioned, would not have existed, unless the fact alleged had existed also. The fact itself is not proved, but the circumstances that attended it are. A stone thrown into the water sinks to the bottom. The conditions are, 1st, that a stone be thrown; 2nd, that it fall into the water; 3rd, that its specific gravity be greater than that of the water. third condition, or event, is properly the cause, but any of the conditions is popularly termed the cause. The 2.-PHYSICAL SEQUENCE-LOGICAL. There has been a heavy full of rain, for the river is flooding the meadow. The premiss, "the river is flooding the meadow," is not the cause of the fact, but it is the cause of one's being convinced that it is so. It is the proof of the fact. The cause, "a heavy fall of rain," produces that of which we are convinced; the premiss, "the river is flooded," produces our conviction. There has been a heavy fall of rain, therefore the river floods the meadow. The effect follows from the cause; the sequence is physical. There has been a heavy fall of rain, for the river is flooding the meadow. The conclusion follows from the premiss, a proof or reason being given; the sequence is logical. An, in Greek, and ergo, or itaque, in Latin, denote the sequence from cause; apa, and igitur, that of conclusion from premises. But in English, therefore, hence, consequently, since, because, for, consequently, accordingly, why, are often applied to each kind of sequence. He is guilty, therefore he blushes. Does therefore denote physical sequence, or logical? Say whether the effect, or some condition, is inferred, in the following arguments; and also whether the words in italics denote physical sequence or logical. The ground is rich, therefore the trees flourish. It has rained, for the ground is wet. The temperature is not above freezing point, therefore there is ice. The wood floats, for it is lighter than water. The stone sinks to the bottom, therefore it is heavier than water. The castle was taken, because the sentry was asleep. Day succeeds night, consequently the earth rotates on its axis. The prisoner had a hatred to the deceased, and an interest in his death, hence he is the murderer. He is the murderer, for he has blood on his clothes. With many of them God was not well pleased, for they were overthrown in the wilderness. He blushes, therefore he is guilty. This is the latest parley we will admit, Therefore to our best mercy give yourselves. For sith (since) the daie (day) is come that I shal die, I make plainly my confession. Heav'n doth with us, as we with torches deal, Not light them for themselves; for if our virtues Did not go forth of us, 't were all alike As if we had them not. Peter answered, Master, it is good for us to be here; let us make three tabernacles; one for thee, and one for Moses, and one for Elias. For he wist not what to say, for they were sore afraid. 3.-MORAL EVIDENCE. Moral Evidence is that by which facts, or events, are proved to be true, or false. The evidence of morality is that by which any class of actions is proved to be virtuous or vicious. Evidence is that which elucidates truth. The different kinds of Moral Evidence are, Personal Observation, Testimony, Report, General Notoriety, Tradition, Analogy, Presumption. The division of Arguments into Moral or Probable, and Demonstrative or Necessary, is a division of the propositions of which they consist. Probable Evidence.-75 out of the 100, who live near the marsh, are malarious, 4 out of 10 of the malarious die; therefore the chance of the patient's recovery Personal Observation, or Experience.-I perceive a horse. There is cognisance taken of a present object without the mind. I am conscious of the fact. I know it without extraneous information. I have toothachę. I know by experience what odontalgia is. For the observation of a specific fact, one has the evidence of certainty, not that of probability. This is properly termed Experience, and is applicable to the premises from which we reason, not to the inferences we draw. Specific facts furnish us with no other evidence than that of their own existence. 4.-GENERAL EXPERIENCE. We know by experience that certain birds have two wings formed for flight, two feet, and bodies covered with feathers; and by the testimony of others as to their own experience, that all the birds they have seen are so; from this general experience we conclude that all birds have the same properties. General Experience consists of the conclusions which have been deduced by one's self, and by others, from various subjects having the same properties. The general conclusions drawn are applicable to particular cases. In applying them, we learn what to expect in any instance. They are attended with a high degree of moral evidence. Captain Hall knew, by experience, that of the men who had eaten of a certain fruit, were injured by it; and that of those who had been injured, died; therefore, he inferred that the chance of recovery was: The canary is a finch; all finches have a sharply pointed conical bill, and the feet have three toes before and one behind, adapted either for perching or walking; therefore the canary has such a bill, and such feet. The minor premiss expresses the object, the canary, which is observed; the major expresses the properties, or principles, which are in the mind of the reasoner; and the conclusion, the statement made, or the thing reported as experienced-the canary has a conical bill, and the feet have toes adapted either for perching or walking. EXPERIMENT. Ex, "thoroughly," and perior, "to try," to try thoroughly. A single example is an experiment. He has proved, by experiment, that lead is fusible. Experience is a series of observations, or trials, or their result. CONTRADICTORY TO EXPERIENCE-BEYOND EXPERIENCE. That a portion of wax did not melt in fire is contradictory to our experience, because a specific fact, which we experienced not to have happened, is asserted to have happened. That water becomes solid was beyond the experience of the King of Bantam, not contradictory to it; because he had never |