These three productions were composed by Julian in | Julian, had been recalled by Constantius, who wished his youth, when he was striving to conciliate the fa- to deprive his cousin of the aid that was to be derived vour of Constantius, on whom his fortunes depended. from his great information and experience, and to They contain some fine thoughts, and are written with which the jealousy of the emperor attributed the sucmore simplicity than one would expect in composi- cesses of the young prince. The farewell which Jutions at this period. In the first of these harangues, lian takes of his friend is interesting and affecting, and Julian had to pronounce a eulogy on one who had been does honour to his feelings: he puts it in the mouth of the murderer of his father, of his brother, in a word, Pericles compelled to part from Anaxagoras.-9. “Meas he himself says on another occasion, the execution- | moir addressed to the philosopher Themistius." This er of his family, and his personal enemy. It was a morceau, to which the philosopher has given the form theme worthy the pliant and fertile genius of the art- of a letter, has no title: the editors of Julian, howful Julian, but just decorated with the title of Cæsar ever, have separated it, on account of its length, from by that very Constantius who had on other occasions the other letters of this prince. Themistius had felicisought for pretexts to destroy him. To dissemble, tated Julian on his nomination as Cæsar; and foreseethen, the faults of this prince, and to exaggerate his ing, no doubt, that the young prince would succeed to good qualities, in such a panegyric, would be the aim the empire, had traced for him the line of his duty, and proposed to himself by the writer; and yet, it must in laid before him what the world expected at his hands. justice be remarked, that, with some exceptions, the Julian replies to this letter with the greatest ability and character of Constantius, as drawn by Julian, coincides moderation.-10. Manifesto against the Emperor Conin its general features with that delineated by the his- stantius, in the form of a letter to the senate and peotorians of the time. In the second harangue, written ple of Athens. Julian addresses, as he says, his justiprobably after he had resided some years in Gaul, Ju-fication for taking up arms against Constantius, to the lian but ill conceals his inclination towards paganism. people of Athens, on account of the love of justice He openly professes in this piece the doctrine of Plato exhibited by them in ancient times. It is a piece exand the heathen philosophers, and constantly affects to tremely important in an historical point of view, since substitute the plural form "gods" for the singular Julian, no longer caring for his cousin, exposes the "God." The third of these discourses, addressed to crimes and weaknesses of this emperor. The letter the princess to whom Julian owed his life and his dig- appears to have been written a short time previous to nity of Cæsar, is too profusely adorned, and burdened, the death of Constantius.-11. A long fragment of a as it were, with erudition.-4. Eis ròv Baoiλéa "Hhi-letter to a pagan pontiff, containing instructions relaov, "In honour of the Sun, the monarch." A dis- tive to the duties to be performed towards the miniscourse addressed to the prefect Sallustius.-5. Eis ters of paganism, of whom Julian, by virtue of his imTìv μnrépa veŵv, “In Honour of the Mother of the perial station, was sovereign pontiff. This letter apGods." These two productions are full of enthusi- pears to have been written during his stay at Antioch. asm, and are written in a species of poetical prose. Setting aside the slanders which this piece contains They contain many allegorical allusions, which to us against the Christians, it may be regarded as well decan only appear frigid and ridiculous. In the system serving a perusal.-12. Kaíoapes, h Evμñóolov, "The of Julian, the world existed from all eternity; but Casars, or the Banquet." This is one of the most there existed at the same time a succession of causes, talented productions of Julian, and, if we throw out of the principal one of which was the Being who subsist- consideration the impious allusions which it contains, ed cf himself, the Being supremely good, the primary one of the most agreeable effusions of antiquity. It sun: the other causes or principles, namely, the intel- is a faithful and true picture of the virtues and vices of ligent world without any sun, and the visible sun, the predecessors of Julian. The plan of the work is were produced from the primary cause, but necessarily as follows. He relates to a friend a story in the form and from all eternity: Cybele, or the mother of the of a dialogue, after the manner of Lucian. Romulus, gods, belongs to the third generative principle, and ap-named Quirinus after his apotheosis, gives a feast at pears to identify herself with it; Attis or Gallus is an the Saturnalia, and invites all the gods to it. Wishattribute of this principle, and consequently of Cybele; ing, at the same time, to regale the Cæsars, he causes and seems, moreover, to make part of the fifth body, a separate table to be set for them below the moon, in which is the soul of the sun and the soul of the uni- the upper region of the air. The tyrants, who would verse. Such was the ridiculous jargon which the have disgraced the society of gods and men, are thrown "wise" and "philosophic" Julian preferred to the rev-headlong, by the inexorable Nemesis, into the Tartaelations of Christianity! According to the account of rean abyss. The rest of the Caesars advance to their Libanius, Julian employed only a single night in the seats, and, as they pass, they undergo the scrutiny and composition of each of these two discourses: both remarks of Silenus. A controversy arises about the were written A.D. 362; the second at Pessinus in first place, which all the gods adjudge to Marcus AuPhrygia, whither Julian had gone to re-establish the relius. This recital affords Julian an opportunity of worship of Cybele.-6. Els roùs añаideúтovç Kúvas, painting the character of his uncle, the Emperor Con"Against the ignorant Cynics."-7. Пpòç 'Hрákλε- stantine, whom he represents as an effeminate man ον κυνικὸν, περὶ τοῦ πῶς κυνιστέον, καὶ εἰ πρέπει τῷ and a debauchee.—13. Αντιοχικὸς, ἢ Μισοπώγων, Kvvì μúðοvç пhárrei, “Unto the Cynic Heraclius; "The inhabitant of Antioch, or the Beard-hater." In how one ought to be a Cynic, and whether it is becom- this satire, filled with pleasantries of a forced characing in a Cynic to compose fables." In these two dis- ter, Julian avenges himself on the people of Antioch, courses or memoirs Julian defines the idea which, ac- who had amused themselves with the philosophic coscording to him, ought to be entertained of the philos-tume which he affected. He draws, in a pleasant man ophy of Diogenes. He blames the false cynics of his time for openly divulging things of a sacred nature. The second discourse contains some very curious materials for history. Under pretence of showing to Heraclius how one may introduce a fable into a discourse of a serious nature, the writer has inserted an allegorical narrative, which is, in fact, the history of Constantine, of his sons, and his nephew.-8. 'Exi T ἐξόδῳ τοῦ ἀγαθωτάτου Σαλλουστίου παραμυθητικός, "Consolation on the departure of the excellent Sallustius." This prefect of Gaul, the friend and adviser of

ner, his own portrait, describing his own figure, his beard, and his unpolished manners; and while he makes an ironical confession of his own faults, he indulges in a severe satire on the licentious and effeminate manners of Antioch. The work betrays marks of the precipitation with which it was composed; for it is full of repetitions.—We have also ninety letters of Julian: these are not treatises of a philosophical or moral nature, to which the epistolary form has been given; they are genuine letters, written in the course of correspondence with others; though occasionally

the Didian law about expenditure by severer penat ties.-IV. Norbana, by L. Junius Norbanus, the consul, A.U.C. 771, that slaves who had been manumitted in any of the less solemn ways should not ob tain the full rights of Roman citizens, but only those of the Latins who were transplanted into colonies. (Plin., Ep., 10, 105.)

a rescript or decision given by Julian as sovereign is found among them. These letters are interesting from the light which they shed on the character of the prince, and on some of the events of the day. The 43d is an ordinance by which public instruction is forbidden to the Christians. Among the correspondents of Julian, they to whom the greater number of letters is addressed are the sophist Libanius, and the New-Platonist JUNO, a Roman divinity, identical with the Grecian Iamblichus, for whom Julian professed a great venera- Hera, and to be considered, therefore, in one and the tion. The best edition of the Casars of Julian is that same article with the latter. In Homer, this goddess of Heusinger, Gothe, 1736, 8vo. It contains the text is one of the children of Saturn and Rhea, and the siscorrected by MSS., a Latin and a French translation, ter and wife of Jupiter. When the latter placed his and a selection of notes from previous commentators. sire in Tartarus, Rhea committed Juno to the care of The edition of Harless, Erlang., 1785, 8vo, is also Oceanus and Tethys, by whom she was nurtured in held in estimation. The best edition of the entire their grotto-palace. (Il., 14, 202, seq.) Hesiod, who works is that of Spanheim, Lips., 1696, fol. None of gives her the same parents, says that she was the last the editions of the works of Julian contain, however, spouse of Jove. (Theog., 921.) According to the all his letters. To those in the edition of Spanheim, Argive legend, Jupiter effected his union with Juno by we must add the letters given by Muratori, in his An- assuming first the form of a cuckoo. (Schol. ad Theecdota Græca, Patavii, 1709, 4to. Fabricius inserted ocr., 15, 64.-Pausan., 2, 17.) In the Iliad (for she these in his Bibliotheca Græca, vol. 7, p. 84 (vol. 6, does not appear in the Odyssey), Juno, as the queen p. 734 of the new edition). This scholar also made of Jupiter, shares in his honours. The god is repreknown eleven other letters, in his Lux salutaris Evan-sented as a little in awe of her tongue, yet daunting geli, Hamb., 1731. These form altogether a collection of seventeen epistles, which may be found in the third volume of the works of Julian, translated by Tourlet, Paris, 1821, 8vo. (Schöll, Hist. Lit. Gr., vol. 6, p. 188, seqq.)

JULII or JULIA GENS, a celebrated Roman family, which pretended to trace its origin to the mythic Iulus, son of Æneas. Its principal branch was that of the Libos, which, about the close of the fifth century of Rome, took the name of Cæsar. (Vid. Cæsar.) JULIOMAGUS, a city of Gaul, the capital of the Andecavi, situate on a tributary of the Liger or Loire, near its junction with that river, and to the northeast of Nainnetes or Nantz. It was afterward called Andecavi, from the name of the people, and is now Angers. (Vid. Andecavi.)

JULIOPOLIS, a city of Galatia. (Vid. Gordium.) IŪLIS, the chief town of the island of Ceos, situate on a hill about 25 stadia from the sea, and which is probably represented by the modern Zea, which gives its name to the island. (Note to the French Strabo, vol. 4, p. 164, from a MS. tour of Villoison.) It was the birthplace of two of the greatest lyric poets of Greece, Simonides and his nephew Bacchylides; also of Erasistratus the physician, and Ariston the Peripatetic philosopher. (Strabo, 486.) It is said that the laws of this town decreed that every man, on reaching his sixtieth year, should destroy himself by poison, in order to leave to others a sufficient maintenance. This ordinance is said to have been first promulgated when the town was besieged by the Athenians. (Strabo, l. c.-Heracl., Pont. Polit. fragm., 9.-Elian., V. H., 3, 37.-Cramer's Anc. Greece, vol. 3, p. 402.)

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her by his menaces. On one occasion he reminds her, how once, when she had raised a storm, which drove his son Hercules out of his course at sea, he tied her hands together, and suspended her with anvils at her feet between heaven and earth (l., 15, 18, seqq.); and when her son Vulcan would aid her, he flung him down from Olympus. (N., 1, 590, seqq.—Compare N., 15, 22.) In this poem the goddess appears dwelling in peace and harmony with Latona, Dione, Themis, and their children later poets speak much, however, of the persecution which Latona underwent from the enmity of Juno, who also visited with severe inflictions Io, Semele, Alcmena, and other favourites of Jove. The children of Jupiter and Juno were Mars, Hebe, and the Ilithyia, to whom some add the Graces. (Coluth., Rapt. Hel., 88, 173.) Vulcan was the progeny of Juno without, a sire; she was also said by some to have given origin to the monster Typhon. (Hom., Hymn., 2, 127, seqq.) In the mythic cycles of Bacchus and Hercules, Juno acts a prominent part as the persecutor of those heroes, on account of their being the offspring of Jupiter by mortal mothers. In like manner, as the goddess of Argos, she is active in the cause of the Achæi in the war of Troy. In the Argonautic cycle she is the protecting deity of the adventurous Jason. There is, in fact, no one of the Olympian deities more decidedly Grecian in feeling and character than Juno.-The chief seats of her worship were Argos, Samos, and Platea. She was also honoured at Sparta, Corinth, Corcyra, and other places. The victims offered to her were kine, ewe-lambs, and sows. The willow, the pomegranate, the dittany, the lily, were her sacred plants. Among birds, the cuckoo, and afterward the peacock, were appropriated to the Olympian queen. (Vid. Argus, and consult remarks under the article Io.) The peacock is an Indian bird, and, according to Theophrastus, was introduced into Greece from the East. Its Persian name at the present day is Taous. (Compare the Greek rawr.) Peafowl were first introduced into Samos; and being birds that gave indications, by their cry, of a change of weather, they were consecrated to Juno, and the legend was gradually spread, that Samos was their native place. The marriage of Jupiter and Juno was viewed as the pattern of those of mankind, and the goddess was held to preside over the nuptial league. Hence she was surnamed the Yoker (Zvyia), the JUNIA LEX, I. a law proposed by M. Junius Pen- Consecrator (Teheia), the Marriage-Goddess (Ta nus, a tribune, and passed A.U.C. 627, about expell- unλia.-Pronuba.)-Juno was represented by Poly ing foreigners from the city.-II. Another, by M. Ju-cletus as seated on a throne, holding in one hand a nius Silanus, the consul, A.U.C. 644, about diminish- pomegranate, the emblem of fecundity, in the other a ing the number of campaigns which soldiers should sceptre, with a cuckoo on its top. Her air is dignified serve.-III. Licinia, or Junia et Licinia, enforcing and matronly, her forehead broad, her eyes large, and

JULIUS, I. Cæsar. (Vid. Cæsar.)-II. Agricola, a governor of Britain. (Vid. Agricola.)-III. Obsequens. (Vid. Obsequens.)-IV. Solinus, a writer. (Vid. Solinus.)-V. Titianus, a writer. (Vid. Titianus.)-VI. Africanus, a chronologer. (Vid. Africanus I.)-VII. Pollux, a grammarian of Naucratis, in Egypt. (Vid. Pollux.)

IULUS, I. the name of Ascanius, the son of Æneas. (Vid. Ascanius.)-II. A son of Ascanius, born in Lavinium. In the succession to the kingdom of Alba, Eneas Sylvius, the son of Eneas and Lavinia, was preferred to him. He was, however, made chief priest. (Dion. Hal., 1, 70.)-III. A son of Antony the triumvir, and Fulvia. (Vid. Antonius VII.)

her arms finely formed. She is attired in a tunic and I ship. (For his warfare with the Titans and Giants, mantle. The term "Hpa is evidently the feminine of vid. Titanes and Gigantes.)-Though Homer names "Hpws, anciently 'Hpos, and thus they answer to each the parents of nearly all the gods who appear in his other as the Latin Herus and Hera, and the German poems, and it follows thence that they must have Herr and Herrin, and therefore signified master and been born in some definite places, he never indicates mistress.-The name JUNO, on the other hand, is any spot of earth as the natal place of any of his deevidently derived from the Greek AINH, the female ities. A very ancient tradition, however (for it ocAIE or ZEYΣ.-The quarrels of Jupiter and Juno in curs in Hesiod), made the isle of Crete the birthplace the Homeric mythology are evidently mere physical of the monarch of Olympus. According to this tradi allegories, Jupiter denoting the æther or upper regions tion, Rhea, when about to be delivered of Jupiter, reof air, and Juno the lower strata, or our atmosphere. tired to a cavern near Lyctus or Cnosus in Crete. Hence the discord and strife that so often prevail be- She there brought forth her babe, whom the Melian tween the king and queen of Olympus, the master and nymphs received in their arms. Adrastea rocked him mistress of the universe, are merely so many types of in a golden cradle; he was fed with honey and the milk the storms that disturb our atmosphere, and the ever- of the goat Amalthea, while the Curetes danced about varying changes that characterize the latter are plainly him, clashing their arms, to prevent his cries from indicated by the capricious and quick-changing tem-reaching the ears of Saturn. (Callim., Hymn. in Jov. per of the spouse of Jove. At a later period, how--Vid. Rhea, and Saturnus.) According to another ever, a new element appears to have entered into the mythology of Juno. The Earth, as the recipient of fertilizing showers from the atmosphere, became in a manner identified with the spouse of Father Ether; and we find Juno, now resembling in many of her attributes both Cybele and Ceres, appearing at one time as Earth, at another as the passive productive princi-reared, but the tomb which contained his remains, was ple. Hence the consecration of the cow to Juno, just as, in the religion of the ancient Germans, the cow was assigned to the service of the goddess Hertha or Earth. At Argos, the chariot in which the priestess of Juno rode was drawn by oxen. (Herod., 1, 31.) Cows were also sacred to the Egyptian Isis, the goddess of fertility, and who resembles in some of her attributes the Grecian Ceres. (Knight, Enquiry into the Symb. Lang., &c., § 36.-Classical Journ., vol. 23, p. 227.—Keightley's Mythology, p. 96, seqq.-Constant, de la Religion, vol. 1, p. 198.) JUNONIA, one of the Canary islands, or Insula Fortunatæ. It is now Palma. (Plin., 6, 32.)

JUNONIS PROMONTORIUM, a promontory of Spain, on the Atlantic side of the Straits of Gibraltar. It is now Cape Trafalgar. (Mela, 2, 6.)

account, the infant deity was fed on ambrosia, brought by pigeons from the streams of Ocean, and on nectar, which an eagle drew each day with his beak from a rock. (Athenæus, 11, p. 490.) This legend was gradually pragmatized; Jupiter became a mortal king of Crete; and not merely the cave in which he was shown by the "lying Cretans." (Kρñτes deì þevotal. Callim, H. in Jov., v. 8.-Compare St. Paul, Ep. ad Tit., 1, 12.)-The Arcadians, on the other hand, asserted that Jupiter first saw the light among their mountains, and made Rhea to have brought him forth amid the thickets of Parrhasion.-All, therefore, that we can collect with safety from these accounts is, that the worship of the Dictaan Jupiter in Crete, and of the Lycæan Jupiter in Arcadia (for he was reared, said the Arcadians, in a cavern of Mount Lyceus), was of the most remote antiquity, and that thence, when the Euhemeristic principle began to creep in among the Greeks, each people supposed the deity to have been born among themselves. The Cretan legend must, however, be regarded as the most ancient, for the Arcadians evidently attempted to transfer the JUPITER, the supreme Roman deity, identical with names of places in it to their own country. In the the Grecian Zeus (Zeus).—Jupiter was the eldest son Theogony, the celestial progeny of Jove are enumeraof Saturn and Rhea. He and his brothers, Neptune ted in the following order. (Theog., 886, seq.) Juand Pluto, divided the world by lot between them, piter first espoused Metis (Prudence), who exceeded and the portion which fell to him was the "extensive gods and men in knowledge. But Heaven and Earth heaven in air and clouds." (Il., 13, 355.) All the having told him that her first child, a maid, would aerial phenomena, such as thunder and lightning, wind, equal him in strength and counsel, and her second, a clouds, snow, and rainbows, are therefore ascribed to son, would be king of gods and men, he cajoled her him, and he sends them either as signs and warnings, when she was pregnant, and swallowed her; and, after or to punish the transgressions of man, especially the a time, the goddess Minerva sprang from his head. perversions of law and justice, of which he is the He then married Themis, who bore him the Seasons fountain. (I., 1, 238, seqq.) Jupiter is called the and Fates. The ocean-nymph Eurynome next pro"father of men and gods;" his power over both is duced him the Graces. Ceres then became by him represented as supreme, and his will is fate. Earthly the mother of Proserpina; Mnemosyne of the Muses; monarchs obtain their authority from him (Il., 2, 197, and Latona of Apollo and Diana. His last spouse 205); they are but his vicegerents, and are distin- was Juno, who bore him Mars, Hebe, and Ilithyia.guished by epithets derived from his name; such as According to Homer (1., 5, 370, seq.), Venus was Jove-sprung (Atoyevs), Jove-reared (Alorpeons), Jove- the daughter of Jupiter and Dione. The Theogony beloved (Aiópiños). In his palace on Olympus, Jove farther says, that Maia, the daughter of Atlas, bore lives like a Grecian prince in the midst of his family: him Hermes (Theog., 938). A later fable stated altercations and quarrels occur between him and his that Asteria, the sister of Latona, flying the love of queen, Juno; and though, in general, kind and affec- Jupiter, flung herself from heaven down to the sea, tionate to his children, he occasionally menaces or and became the island afterward known by the name treats them with rigour.-In the Odyssey, the char- of Delos.-Mortal women also bore a numerous proacter of this god is, agreeably to the more moral geny to the monarch of the sky, and every species of tone of that poem, of a higher and more dignified or- transmutation and disguise was employed by him to der. No indecent altercations occur; both gods and further his views. (Vid. Alcmena, Antiope, Callisto, men submit to his power without a murmur, yet he Danaë, Europa, Leda, &c.) The various fables of is anxious to show the equity of his decrees and which the monarch of the gods thus became the subto "justify his ways." (Od., 1, 32.)-The Theog-ject, and which, while they derogate from his characony of Hesiod represents Jupiter as the last-born child of Saturn and Rhea, and, according to it, the supreme power was freely conferred on him by his brothers, and he thus became the acknowledged head of the Olympian gods, the objects of Grecian wor

ter of sovereign deity, have little, if anything, to recommend them on the score of moral purity, lose all their grossness if we regard them merely as so many allegories, which typify the great generative power of the universe displaying itself in a variety of ways, and un

der the greatest diversity of forms.—It was the habit |tilizing rains. Besides this goddess, other beings are of the Greeks to appropriate particular plants and an-associated on one side with the Supreme God, who imals to the service of their deities. There was gen-are personifications of certain of his energies; powererally some reason for this, founded on physical or ful deities, who carry the influence of light over the moral grounds, or on both. Nothing could be more earth, and destroy the opposing powers of darkness natural than to assign the oak (onyós, quercus ascu- and confusion: such as Minerva, born from the head lus), the monarch of trees, to the celestial king, whose of her father, in the height of the heavens; and Apollo, ancient oracle, moreover, was in the oak-woods of Do- the pure and shining god of a worship belonging to dona. In like manner, the eagle was evidently the other races, but who, even in his original form, was a bird best suited to his service. The celebrated Egis, god of light. On the other side are deities allied the shield which sent forth thunder, lightning, and dark-with the earth, and dwelling in her dark recesses; ness, and struck terror into mortal hearts, was formed and as all life appears not only to spring from the earth, for Jupiter by Vulcan. In Homer we see it sometimes but to return to that whence it sprung, these deities borne by Apollo (П., 15, 508) and sometimes by Mi- are, for the most part, also connected with death; as nerva (Il., 5, 738.—Od., 22, 297).-The most famous Hermes or Mercury, who brings up the treasures of temple of Jupiter was at Olympia in Elis, where, every fruitfulness from the depth of the earth, and the child, fourth year, the Olympic Games were celebrated in now lost and now recovered by her mother Ceres, his honour; he had also a splendid fane in the island Proserpina (Cora) the goddess both of flourishing and of Egina. But, though there were few deities less of decaying nature. It was natural to expect that honoured with temples and statues, all the inhabitants the element of water (Neptune or Poseidon) should of Hellas conspired in the duty of doing homage to the also be introduced into this assemblage of the persovereign of the gods. His great oracle was at Dodo- sonified powers of Nature, and should be peculiarly na, where, even in the Pelasgian period, the Selli an- combined with the goddess of the Earth: and that nounced his will and the secrets of futurity. (I., 16, fire (Vulcan or Hephaestus) should be represented as a 233.)-Jupiter was represented by artists as the model powerful principle, derived from heaven and having of dignity and majesty of mien; his countenance grave dominion on the earth, and be closely allied with the but mild. He is seated on a throne, and grasping his goddess who sprang from the head of the god of the sceptre and thunder. The eagle is standing beside heavens. Other deities are less important and necesthe throne. An inquiry, of which the object should be sary parts of this same system, as Venus (Aphrodite), to select and unite all the parts of the Greek mythol-whose worship was evidently, for the most part, propogy that have reference to natural phenomena and agated over Greece from Cyprus and Cythera, by the the changes of the seasons, although it has never been influence of Syrophoenician tribes. As a singular beregularly undertaken, would doubtless show, that the ing, however, in the assembly of the Greek divinities, earliest religion of the Greeks was founded on the stands the changeable god of flourishing, decaying, same notions as the chief part of the religions of the and renovated Nature, Bacchus or Dionysus, whose East, particularly of that part of the East which was alternate joys and sufferings, and marvellous advennearest to Greece, namely, Asia Minor. The Greek tures, show a strong resemblance to the form which mind, however, even in this the earliest of its produc- religious notions assumed in Asia Minor. Introduced tions, appears richer and more various in its forms, by the Thracians (a tribe which spread from the north and, at the same time, to take a loftier and wider range, of Greece into the interior of the country), and not, than is the case in the religion of the Oriental neigh-like the gods of Olympus, recognised by all the races bours of the Greeks, the Phrygians, Lydians, and Syr- of the Greeks, Bacchus always remained to a certain ians. In the religion of these nations, the combina- degree estranged from the rest of the gods, although tion and contrast of two beings (Baal and Astarte), the his attributes had evidently most affinity with those of one male, representing the productive, and the other Ceres and Proserpina. But in this isolated position female, representing the passive and nutritive powers Bacchus exercises an important influence on the spirit of Nature; and the alternation of two states, namely, of the Greek nation, and both in sculpture and poetry the strength and vigour, and the weakness and death, gave rise to a class of feelings, which agree in disof the male personification of Nature, the first of which playing more powerful emotions of the mind, a bolder was celebrated with vehement joy, the latter with ex-flight of the imagination, and more acute sensations cessive lamentation, recur in a perpetual cycle, that of pain and pleasure, than were exhibited on occasions must have wearied and stupified the mind. The Gre- where this influence did not operate. In like manner, cian worship of Nature, on the other hand, in all the the Homeric Poems (which instruct us not merely by various forms which it assumed in different quarters, their direct statements, but also by their indirect alluplaces one Deity, as the highest of all, at the head of the sions; not only by what they say, but also by what entire system, the God of heaven and light, the Father they do not say), when attentively considered, clearly Ether of the Latin poets. That this is the true mean- show how this ancient religion of nature sank into the ing of the name Zeus (Jupiter) is shown by the occur- shade as compared with the salient and conspicuous rence of the same root (DIU), with the same significa- forms of the deities of the heroic age. The gods who tion, even in the Sanscrit, and by the preservation of dwell on Olympus scarcely appear at all in connexion several of its derivatives, which remained in common with natural phenomena. Zeus chiefly exercises his use both in Greek and Latin, all containing the no-power as a ruler and king; although he is still desigtion of Heaven and Day. The root DIU is most clearly nated (by epithets doubtless of high antiquity) as the seen in the oblique cases of Zeus, A.Fós, AcFí, in which god of the ether and the storms; as in much later the U has passed into the consonant form F (Digamma); whereas in Zeus, as in other Greek words, the sound DI has passed into Z, and the vowel has been lengthened. In the Latin Jovis (Iuve in Umbrian) the D has been lost before I, which, however, is preserved in many other derivatives of the same root, as, dies, dium.-With this god of the heavens, who dwells in the pure expanse of ether, is associated, though not as a being of the same rank, a goddess worshipped under the name of Hera or Juno. The marriage of Zeus with this divinity was regarded as a sacred solemnity, and typified the union of heaven and earth in the fer

times the old picturesque expression was used, "What is Zeus doing?" for "What kind of weather is it?" In the Homeric conception of Minerva and Apollo, there is no trace of any reference of these deities to their earlier attributes. Vulcan also has passed, from the powerful god of fire in heaven and on earth, into a laborious smith and worker of metals, who performs his duty by making armour and weapons for the other gods and their favourite heroes. As to Mercury, there are some stories in which he is represented as giving fruitfulness to cattle, in his capacity of the rural god of Arcadia; from which, by means of various meta

morphoses, he is transmuted into the messenger of Zeus and the servant of the gods. (Müller, Hist. Gr. Lit., p. 13, seqq.)

JURA, a chain of mountains, which, extending from the Rhodanus or Rhone to the Rhenus or Rhine, separated Helvetia from the territory of the Sequani. The name is said to be in Celtic, Jou-rag, and to signify the domain of God or Jupiter. The most elevated parts of the chain are the Dole, 5082 feet above the level of the sea; the Mont Tendre, 5170; and the Reculet (the summit of the Thoiry), 5196. (Plin., 3, 4. Cas., B. C., 1, 2.—Ptol., 2, 9.)

Gibbon, Decline and Fall, c. 40, seqq.)—II. The second of the name, was son of Constantine III., and lineal descendant of the Emperor Heraclius. He suc ceeded his father on the throne of Constantinople, A.D. 685, but his reign, which lasted ten years, was marked chiefly by wars with the Saracens, and by the exactions and oppressions of his ministers. At last, his general Leontius drove him from the throne, and, having caused his nose to be cut off, banished him to the Crimea, A.D. 695. Leontius, however, was soon after deposed himself, and banished by Tiberius Apsimerus, who reigned for seven years. Meantime Justinian had escaped from the Crimea and married the daughter of the Kakan, or King of the Gazari, a tribe of Turks; and he afterward, with the assistance of the Bulgarians, entered Constantinople, and put to a cruel death both Leontius and Tiberius, along with many others. He ordered, also, many of the principal people of Ravenna to be put to death. At last Justinian was dethroned and killed by Philippus Bardanes, A.D. 711. (Encycl. Us. Knowl., vol. 13, p. 166.)

tables, and he frequently passed two days and as many nights without tasting any food. He allowed himself little time for sleep, and was always up before the morning light. His restless application to business and to study, as well as the extent of his learning, have been attested even by his enemies ('Avéκdora, c. 8, 13). He was, or professed to be, a poet and philosopher, a lawyer and theologian, a musician and architect; but the brightest ornament of his reign is the compilation of Roman law, which has immortalized his name, and an accouut of which will be found under the article Tribonianus. Unfortunately, his love of JUSTINIANUS, FLAVIUS, born near Sardica in Mosia, theological controversy led him to interfere with the A.D. 482 or 483, of obscure parents, was nephew by consciences of his subjects, and his penal enactments his mother's side to Justinus, afterward emperor. The against Jews and heretics display a spirit of mischievelevation of his uncle to the imperial throne, A.D. 518, ous intolerance which has ever since afforded a dandecided the fortune of Justinian, who, having been gerous authority for religious persecution.-Justinian educated at Constantinople, had given proofs of con- died at 83 years of age, on the 14th of November, 565, siderable capacity and application. Justinus was igno- leaving no children. He was succeeded by his neph rant and old, and the advice and exertions of his nephew Justinus IV. (Ludewig, Vita Justiniani Magni. ew were of great service to him during the nine years of his reign. He adopted Justinian as his colleague, and at length, a few months before his death, feeling that his end was approaching, he crowned him in presence of the patriarch and senators, and made over the imperial authority to him, in April, 527. Justinian was then in his 45th year, and he reigned above 38 years, till November, 565, when he died. His long reign forms a remarkable epoch in the history of the world. Although himself unwarlike, yet, by means of his able generals, Belisarius and Narses, he completely defeated the Vandals and the Goths, and reunited Italy and Africa to the empire. Justinian was the last emperor of Constantinople, who, by his dominion over the whole of Italy, reunited in some measure the two principal portions of the ancient empire of the Cæsars. On the side of the East, his arms repelled the inroads of Chosroes, and conquered Colchis; and the Negus, or king of Abyssinia, entered into an alliance with him. On the Danubian frontier, the Gepida, Langobardi, Bulgarians, and other hordes, were either kept in check or repulsed. The wars of his reign are re- JUSTINUS, I. M. JUNIANUS, or, as he is named in lated by Procopius and Agathias.-Justinian must be some manuscripts, M. Justinus Frontinus, a Latin hisviewed also as an administrator and legislator of his torian, generally supposed to have flourished in the age vast empire. In the first capacity he did some good of the Antonines. The chief reason for assigning him and much harm. He was both profuse and penurious; to this period is the dedication of his work, addressed personally inclined to justice, he often overlooked, to Marcus Aurelius. Many critics, however, regard through weakness, the injustice of subalterns; he es- the line in the manuscripts which expresses this dedtablished monopolies of certain branches of industry ication as an addition by some ignorant copyist, who and commerce, and increased the taxes. But he in- had confounded this writer with Justinus the Martyr. troduced the rearing of silkworms into Europe, and Nothing is known of the particulars of Justin's life. the numerous edifices which he raised (vid. Isidorus He made an epitome of, or, rather, a selection of exIV.), and the towns which he repaired or fortified, at- tracts from, the historical work of Trogus Pompeius. test his love for the arts, and his anxiety for the secu- This epitome is entitled, "Historiarum Philippicarum rity and welfare of his dominions. Procopius ("De et totius mundi originum, et terræ situs, ex Trogo ædificiis Domini Justiniani") gives a notice of the Pompeio excerptarum libri XLIV. a Nino ad Cæsartowns, churches (St. Sophia among the rest), convents, em Augustum.” In making his extracts, Justin gave bridges, roads, walls, and fortifications constructed or the preference to those facts and those passages which repaired during his reign. The same Procopius, how he considered peculiarly interesting. (Compare his ever, wrote a secret history ('Avéкdora) of the court own words : "Omissis his quæ nec cognoscendi and reign of Justinian, and his wife Theodora, both voluptate jucunda, nec exemplo erant necessaria.") of whom he paints in the darkest colours. Theodora, Other events are only mentioned briefly, and by way indeed, was an unprincipled woman, with some abili- of transition. Chronology is entirely neglected in the ties, who exercised, till her death in 548, a great influ- work of Justin, as in the greater part of the ancient ence over the mind of Justinian, and many acts of op- writers. Justin is deficient in judgment and sagacity. pression and cruelty were committed by her orders. His style is correct, simple, and elegant, but uneBut yet the Anecdota of Procopius cannot be impli- qual; it is far preferable, however, to that of Florus. citly trusted, as many of his charges are evidently The best editions are, that of Gronovius, L. Bat., misrepresentations or malignant exaggerations.-Jus- 1719, 8vo; of Hearne, Oxon., 1705, 8vo; of Fischer, tinian was easy of access, patient of hearing, courte- Lips., 1757, 8vo; and of Wetzel, Leign., 1817, 8vo. ous and affable in discourse, and perfect master of his -The value of Justin's history chiefly depends on the temper. In the conspiracies against his authority and circumstance of Trogus's work having been compiled person, he often showed both justice and clemency. from some of the best of the ancient historical writers, He excelled in the private virtues of chastity and such as Theopompus, Herodotus, Ctesias, Hierony temperance; his meals were short and frugal; on sol-mus of Cardia, Timæus, Phylarchus, Polybius, Posiemn fast he contented himself with water and vege-donius, &c. (Compare Gatterer, vom Plan des Tro