madeby Ephorus (ap. Strab., 326), and it has led some | Arabs, who brought the produce of India from the modern geographers and critics, in order to reconcile modern Sinde, or the Malabar coast, to Hadramunt in these two contradictory accounts, to suppose that there was a stream which, branching off from the Achelous, fell into the Ambracian Gulf near Argos. This is more particularly the hypothesis of D'Anville; but modern travellers assure us that there is no such river near the ruins of Argos (Holland's Travels, vol. 2, p. 225); and, in fact, it is impossible that any stream should there separate from the Achelous, on account of the Amphilochian Mountains, which divide the valley of that river from the Gulf of Arta. Mannert considers the small river Krikeli to be the representative of the Inachus (Geogr., vol. 8, p. 65), but this is a mere torrent, which descends from the mountains above the gulf, and can have no connexion with Mount Lacmus or the Achelous. All ancient anthorities agree in deriving the Inachus from the chain of Pindus. (Cramer's Anc. Greece, vol. 2, p. 40, seqq.) INARIME, an island off the coast of Campania, oth-cover none of an Indian origin; but the names of the erwise called Enaria and Pithecusa. Under an extinguished volcano, in the middle of this island, Jupiter was fabled to have confined the giant Typhoeus. (Consult remarks under the articles Enaria and Arima.) Heyne thinks that some one of the early Latin poets, in translating the Iliad into the Roman tongue, misunderstood Homer's eiv 'Apíuoic, and rendered it by Inarime or Inarima; and that the fable of Typhoeus, travelling westward, was assigned to Enaria or Pithecusa as a volcanic situation. (Heyne, Excurs. ad Virg., En., 9, 715.)

the southwestern part of Arabia, or to Gerra on the Persian Gulf, from which place it was carried by means of caravans to Petra, where it was purchased by Phonician merchants. A great quantity of Indian articles was also brought from the Persian Gulf up the Euphrates as far as Circesium or Thapsacus, and thence carried across the Syrian desert into Phoenicia. Europe was thus supplied with the produce of India by means of the Phoenicians; but we cannot assent to the opinion of Robertson (Historical Disquisition on India), that Phoenician ships sailed to India; for there is no reason for believing that the Phoenicians had any harbours at the head of the Red Sea, as Robertson supposes, but, on the contrary, the Idumæans remained independent till the time of David and Solomon; and in the 27th chapter of Ezekiel, which contains a list of the nations that traded with Tyre, we can disArabian tribes are specified which supplied the Phonicians with the products of India (v. 19, 22). The conquest of Idumæa by David gave the Jews possession of the harbour of Ezion-geber on the Red Sea, from which ships sailed to Ophir, bringing "gold and silver, ivory, apes, and peacocks." (1 Kings, 2, 28.— Ib., 10, 11, 22.) Considerable variety of opinion prevails respecting Ophir; but it is most probable that it was an emporium of the African and Indian trade in Arabia. The Arabian merchants procured the gold from Africa, and the ivory, apes, and peacocks from India. The Hebrew words in this passage appear to be derived from the Sanscrit. In the troubles which followed the death of Solomon, the trade with Ophir was probably neglected; and till the foundation of Alexandrea the trade with India was carried on by the Arabians in the way already mentioned. The produce of India was also imported into Greece by the Phoeni cians in very early times. Many of the Greek names of the Indian articles are evidently derived from the Sanscrit. Thus, the Greek word for pepper (TÉπлεр, pepperi) comes from the Sanscrit pippali: the Greek word for emerald is oμápaydos or μápaydoç (smaragdos, maragdos), from the Sanscrit marakata: the βυσσίνη σινδών (byssiné sindon), "fine linen' "muslin," mentioned by Herodotus (2, 86; 7, 181), seems to be derived from Sindhu, the Sanscrit name of the river Indus: the produce of the cotton-plant, called in Greek кáρжασoç (karpasos), comes from the Sanscrit karpâsa, a word which we also find in the Hebrew (karpas.-Esther, 1, 6), and it was probably introduced into Greece, together with the commodity, by the Phoenician traders. That this was the case with the word cinnamon, Herodotus (3, 111) informs INDIA, an extensive country of Asia, divided by us. The term cinnamon (in Greek kivváμwpov or Ptolemy and the ancient geographers into India intra Kivvaμov, cinnamomum, cinnamon; in Hebrew kinnaGangem and India extra Gangem, or India on this mon) is not found in Sanscrit; the Sanscrit term for side, and India beyond, the Ganges. The first divis- this article is gudha tvach, "sweet bark." The word ion answers to the modern Hindustan; the latter to cinnamon appears to be derived from the Cingalese the Birman Empire, and the dominions of Pegu, Siam, kakyn nama, "sweet wood," of which the Sanscrit is Laos, Cambodia, Cochin China, Tonquin, and Ma- probably a translation. We are not, however, surlacca.-Commerce between India and the western na-prised at missing the Sanscrit word for this article, tions of Asia appears to have been carried on from since the languages in Southern India have no affinity the earliest historical times. The spicery, which the with the Sanscrit. Tin also appears to have been from company of Ishmaelites mentioned in Genesis (37, 25) early times an article of exportation from India. The were carrying into Egypt, must in all probability have Greek term for tin, kaoσírepoç (kassiteros), which ocbeen the produce of India; and in the 30th chapter curs even in Homer, is evidently the same as the Sanof Exodus, where an enumeration is made of various scrit kastira. It is usually considered that the Greeks spices and perfumes, cinnamon and cassia are express- obtained their tin, by means of the Phoenicians, from ly mentioned, which must have come from India, or the Scilly Islands or Cornwall; but there is no dithe islands in the Indian Archipelago. It has been rect proof of this; and it appears probable, from the thought by many, that the Egyptians must have used Sanscrit derivation of the word, that the Greeks oriIndian spices in embalming their dead; and Diodorus ginally obtained their tin from India.-The western Siculus says (1, 91), that cinnamon was actually em- nations of Asia appear to have had no connexion with ployed by this people for that purpose. The spice India, except in the way of commerce, till the time of trade appears to have been carried on by means of the Darius Hystaspis, 521 B.C. The tales which Diodo

INARUS, a son of Psammeticus (Thucyd., 1, 104), king of that part of Libya which borders upon Egypt. Sallying forth from Marea, he drew over the greater part of Egypt to revolt from Artaxerxes, the Persian emperor, and, becoming himself their ruler, called in the Athenians to his assistance, who happened to be engaged in an expedition against Cyprus, with two hundred ships of their own and their allies. The enterprise at first was eminently successful, and the whole of Egypt fell under the power of the invaders and their ally. Eventually, however, the Persian arms triumphed, and Inarus, being taken by treachery, was crucified. (Thucyd., 1, 109; 1, 110.) Herodotus and Ctesias say he was crucified, ἐπὶ τρισὶ σταυpois, which might more properly be termed impalement. Bloomfield (ad Thucyd., l. c.) thinks that he was of the ancient royal family of Egypt, and descended from the Psammeticus who died B.C. 617. It is not improbable, he adds, that, on Apries being put to death by his chief minister Amasis, his son, or some near relation, established himself among the Libyans bordering on Egypt, from whom descended this Psam

meticus.

or

66

east

rus relates respecting the invasion of India by Sesostris called Sandracoptus by Athenæus (Epit., 1, 32), is and Semiramis, cannot be estimated as historical facts. probably the same as the Chandragupta of the Hindus. The same remark may perhaps apply to the alliance (Consult Sir W. Jones, in Asiatic Researches, vol. 4, which, according to Xenophon, in his Cyropædia (6, 2, p. 11.-Wilson's Theatre of the Hindus, vol. 2, p. 1), Cyrus made with a king of India. But, in the 127, seqq., 2d ed.-Schlegel, Indische Bibliothek, vol. reign of Darius Hystaspis, Herodotus informs us (4, 1, p. 246.) Sandrocottus is represented as king of 44), that Scylax of Caryanda was sent by the Persians the Gangarida and Prasii, who are probably one and to explore the course of the Indus; that he set out for the same people, Gangarida being the name given to the city Caspatyrus, and the Pactyican country (Pa- them by the Greeks, and signifying merely the people kali?) in the northern part of India; that he sailed in the neighbourhood of the Ganges, and Prasii being down the Indus until he arrived at its mouth, and the Hindu name, the same as the Prachi (i. e., thence across the Indian Sea to the Arabian Gulf, and ern country") of the Sanscrit writers. Seleucus rethat this voyage occupied 30 months. Darius also, it mained only a short time in the country of the Prasii, is said, subdued the Indians and formed them into a but his expedition was the means of giving the Greeks satrapy, the tribute of which amounted to 360 talents a more correct knowledge of the eastern part of India of gold. (Herod., 3, 94.) The extent of the Persian than they had hitherto possessed; since Megasthenes, empire in India cannot be ascertained with any degree and afterward Daimachus, resided for many years as of certainty. The Persians appear to have included ambassadors of the Syrian monarchs at Palibothra under the name of Indians many tribes dwelling to (in Sanscrit, Pataliputra), the capital of the Prasii. the west of the Indus; it seems doubtful whether they From the work which Megasthenes wrote on India, ever had any dominion east of the Indus; and it is later writers, even in the time of the Roman emperors, nearly certain that their authority did not extend be- such as Strabo and Arrian, appear to have derived their yond the Penjab.-The knowledge which the Greeks principal knowledge of the country. The Seleucida possessed respecting India, previous to the time of Al- probably lost all influence at Palibothra after the death exander, was derived from the Persians. We do not of Seleucus Nicator, B.C. 281; though we have a find the name of Indian or Hindu in ancient Sanscrit brief notice in Polybius (11, 34) of an expedition which works; but the country east of the Indus has been Antiochus the Great made into India, and of a treaty known under this name by the western nations of which he concluded with a king Sophagasenus (in SanAsia from the earliest times. In the Zend and Pehlvi scrit, probably, Subhagasena, i. e., "the leader of languages it is called Heando, and in the Hebrew fortunate army"), whereby the Indian king was bound Hoddu (Esther, 1, 1), which is evidently the same as to supply him with a certain number of war elephants. the Hend of the Persian and Arabic geographers. The Greek kingdom of Bactria, which was founded The first mention of the Indians in a Greek author is by Theodotus or Diodotus, a lieutenant of the Syrian in the "Supplices" of Eschylus (v. 287); but no monarchs, and which lasted about 120 years, appears Greek writer gives us any information concerning them to have comprised a considerable portion of northern till the time of Herodotus. We may collect from the India.-After the foundation of Alexandrea, the Inaccount of this historian a description of three distinct dian trade was almost entirely carried on by the mer tribes of Indians: one dwelling in the north, near the chants of that city; few ships, however, appear to city Caspatyrus, and the Pactyican country, resem- have sailed from Alexandrea till the discovery of the bling the Bactrians in their customs and mode of life. monsoons by Hippalus; and the Arabians supplied The second tribe or tribes evidently did not live un- Alexandrea, as they had previously done the Phœnider Brahminical laws; some of them dwelt in the cians, with the produce of India. The monsoons marshes formed by the Indus, and subsisted by fish- must have become known to European navigators ing; others, called Padæi, with whom we may proba- about the middle of the first century of our era, since bly class the Calantiæ or Calatiæ, were wild and bar- they are not mentioned by Strabo, but were well barous tribes, such as exist at present in the mountains known in the time of Pliny. Pliny has given us (6, of the Deccan. The third class, who are described as 23) an interesting account of the trade between Insubsisting on the spontaneous produce of the earth, dia and Alexandrea, as it existed in his own time. and never killing any living thing, are more likely to We learn from him that the ships of the Alexandrean have been genuine Hindus. (Herod., 3, 98, seqq.) merchants set sail from Berenice, a port of the Red Herodotus had heard of some of the natural produc- Sea, and arrived, in about 30 days, at Ocelis or Carre, tions of Hindustan, such as the cotton-plant and the in Arabia. Thence they sailed by the wind Hippalus bamboo; but his knowledge was very limited.-Cte-(the southwest monsoon), in 40 days, to Muziris (Mansias, who lived at the court of Artaxerxes Mnemon for galore), the first emporium in India, which was not many years, has given us a fuller account than Herod- much frequented, on account of the pirates in the otus of the manners and customs of the Indians, and neighbourhood. The port at which the ships usually of the natural productions of the country. He had stayed was that of Barace (at the mouth, probably, of heard of the war-elephants, and describes the parrot, the Nelisuram river). After remaining in India till the monkey, cochineal, &c.-The expedition of Alex- the beginning of December or January, they sailed ander into India, B.C. 326, first gave the Greeks a back to the Red Sea, met with the wind Africus or correct idea of the western parts of this country. Al-Auster (south or southwest wind), and thus arrived at exander did not advance farther east than the Hyphasis; but he followed the course of the Indus to the ocean, and afterward sent Nearchus to explore the coast of the Indian Ocean as far as the Persian Gulf. The Penjab was inhabited, at the time of Alexander's invasion, by many independent nations, who were as distinguished for their courage as their descendants the Rajpoots. Though the Macedonians did not penetrate farther east than the Hyphasis, report reached them of the Prasii, a powerful people on the banks of the Ganges, whose king was prepared to resist Alexander with an immense army. After the death of Alexander, Seleucus made war against Sandrocottus, king of the Prasii, and was the first Greek who advanced as far as the Ganges. This Sandrocottus,

Berenice in less than a twelvemonth from the time they set out. The same author informs us, that the Indian articles were carried from Berenice to Coptos, a distance of 258 Roman miles, on camels; and that the different halting-places were determined by the wells. From Coptos, which was united to the Nile by a canal, the goods were conveyed down the river to Alexandrea. We have another account of the Indian trade, written by Arrian, who lived, in all proba bility, in the first century of the Christian era, and certainly not later than the second. Arrian had been in India himself, and describes in a small Greek treatise, entitled "the Periplus of the Erythrean Sea," the coast from the Red Sea to the western parts of India; and also gives a list of the most important exports and

of the exports and imports of the Indian trade, which are enumerated in the Digest, and in Arrian's "Periplus of the Erythrean Sea."-We have no farther account of the trade between Alexandrea and India till the time of the Emperor Justinian, during whose reign an Alexandrean merchant of the name of Cosmas, who had made several voyages to India, but who afterward turned monk, published a work, still extant, entitled "Christian Topography," in which he gives us several particulars respecting the Indian trade. But his knowledge of India is not more extensive than that of Arrian, for the Alexandrean merchants continued to visit merely the Malabar coast, to which the produce of the country farther east was brought by native merchants, as in the time of Arrian. Alexandrea continued to supply the nations of Europe with Indian articles till the discovery of the passage round the Cape of Good Hope by Vasco de Gama in 1498. But the western nations of Asia were principally supplied by the merchants of Basora, which was founded by the Calif Omar near the mouth of the Euphrates, and which soon became one of the most flourishing commercial cities of the East. In addition to which it must be recollected, that a land-trade, conducted by means of caravans, which passed through the central countries of Asia, existed from very early times between India and the western nations of Asia. (Encycl. Useful Knowl., vol. 12, p. 222, seqq.)

66

History of India from the earliest times to the Mohammedan Conquest.

imports. According to this account, the two principal ports in India were Barygaza on the northwestern, and Barace or Nelcynda on the southwestern coast. To Barygaza (the modern Baroach, on the river Nerbudda) goods were brought from Ozene (Oujein), Plithana (Pultanch), and Tagara (Deoghur). But Barace or Nelcynda seems, from the account of Pliny and Arrian, to have been the principal emporium of the Indian trade. The Roman ships appear to have seldom sailed beyond this point; and the produce of countries farther east was brought to Barace by the native merchants. The knowledge which the Romans possessed of India beyond Cape Comorin was exceedingly vague and defective. Strabo describes the Ganges as flowing into the sea by one mouth; and though Pliny gives a long list of Indian nations, which had not been previously mentioned by any Greek or Roman writers, we have no satisfactory account of any part of India, except the description of the western coast by Arrian. Ptolemy, who lived about 100 years later than Pliny, appears to have derived his information from the Alexandrean merchants, who only sailed to the Malabar coast, and could not, therefore, have any accurate knowledge of the eastern parts of India, and still less of the countries beyond the Ganges; still, however, he is the earliest writer who attempts to describe the countries to the east of this stream. There is great difficulty in determining the position of any of the places enumerated by him, in consequence of the great error he made in the form of the peninsula, which he has made to stretch in its length from west to east instead of from north to south; a mistake The materials for the history of this period are the more extraordinary, since all preceding writers very few and unsatisfactory. The only ancient hison India with whom we are acquainted had given tory written in the Sanscrit language which the rethe general shape of the peninsula with tolerable accu- searches of modern scholars have been able to obracy. The Romans never extended their conquests tain, is a chronicle of the kings of Cashmere, entitled as far as India, nor visited the country except for Raja Taringini," of which an abstract was given the purposes of commerce. But the increase of the by Abulfazl in the "Ayin-i-Akbery." The original trade between Alexandrea and India seems to have Sanscrit was obtained for the first time by English produced in the Indian princes a desire to obtain scholars in the present century, and was published some farther information concerning the western na- at Calcutta in the year 1835. An interesting actions. We read of embassies to Augustus Cæsar, sent count of the work is given by Professor Wilson, in by Pandion and Porus, and also of an embassy from the 15th volume of the "Asiatic Researches." But, the isle of Ceylon to the Emperor Claudius. Bohlen, though this volume throws considerable light upon the in his work on the Indians (vol. 1, p. 70), doubts early history of Cashmere, it gives us little information whether these embassies were sent; but as they are respecting the early history of Hindustan. The existboth mentioned by contemporary writers, the former ence of this chronicle, however, is sufficient to disby Strabo and the latter by Pliny, we can hardly prove the assertion which some persons have made, question the truth of their statements. We may form that the Hindus possessed no native history prior to some idea of the magnitude of the Indian trade under the Mohammedan conquest; and it may be hoped that the emperors by the account of Pliny (6, 23), who in- similar works may be obtained by the researches of forms us, that the Roman world was drained every modern scholars. We may also expect to obtain faryear of at least 50 millions of sesterces (upward of ther information by a more diligent examination of the 1,900,000 dollars) for the purchase of Indian commodi- various inscriptions which exist on public buildings in ties. The profit upon this trade must have been im- all parts of Hindustan, though the majority of such inmense, if we are to believe the statements of Pliny, scriptions relate to a period subsequent to the Mohamthat Indian articles were sold at Rome at 100 per medan conquest. The Brahmins profess to give a hiscent. above their cost price. The articles imported tory of the ancient kingdoms of Hindustan, with the by the Alexandrean merchants were chiefly precious names of the monarchs who successively reigned over stones, spices, perfumes, and silk. It has usually been them, and the principal events of their reigns. But considered, that the last article was imported into In- their accounts are derived from the legendary tales of dia from China; but there are strong reasons for be- the Puranas, a class of compositions very similar to lieving that the silkworm has been reared in India the Greek Theogonies; and although these, and esfrom very early times. Mr. Colebrooke, in his "Essay pecially the two great epic poems, the " Ramayana❞ on Hindu Classes" (Miscellaneous Essays, vol. 2, p. and "Mahabharata," are exceedingly valuable for the 185), informs us, that the class of silk-twisters and information they give us respecting the religion, civilfeeders of silkworms is mentioned in an ancient San-ization, and customs of the ancient Hindus, they canscrit work; in addition to which, it may be remarked, not be regarded as authorities for historical events.that silk is known throughout the Archipelago by its The invariable tradition of the Hindus points to the Sanscrit name sûtra. (Marsden's Malay Dictionary, northern parts of Hindustan as the origmal abode of s. v. sûtra.) Those who wish for farther information their race, and of the Brahminical faith and laws. It on the articles of commerce, both imported and ex- appears probable, both from the tradition of the Hindus ported by the Alexandrean merchants, may consult and from the similarity of the Sanscrit to the Zend, with advantage the Appendix to Dr. Vincent's "Peri- Greek, and Latin languages, that the nation from which plus of the Erythrean Sea," in which he has given an the genuine Hindus are descended must at some pealphabetical list, accompanied with many explanations, riod have inhabited the plains of Central Asia, from

which they emigrated into the northern part of Hindu- | Sanscrit. The modern Concan is described by both stan. Heeren and other writers have supposed, that the Brahmins, and perhaps the Kshatriyas and Vaisyas, were a race of northern conquerors, who subdued the Sudras, the original inhabitants of the country. But, whatever opinion may be entertained respecting the origin of this people, it is evident that the Hindus themselves never regarded the southern part of the peninsula as forming part of Aryavarta, or "the holy land," the name of the country inhabited by genuine Hindus. Aryavarta was bounded on the north by the Himalaya, and on the south by the Vindhya Mountains (Manu, 6, 21-24); the boundaries on the east and west cannot be so easily ascertained. In this country, and especially in the eastern part, there existed great and powerful empires, at least a thousand years before the Christian era (the probable date of the Ramayana and Mahabharata), which had made great progress in knowledge, civilization, and the fine arts, and of which the ancient literature of the Sanscrit languages is an imperishable memorial. According to Hindu tradition, two empires only existed in the most ancient times, of which the capitals were Ayodhya or Oude, and Pratishthana or Vitora. The kings of these cities, who are respectively denominated children of the Sun and of the Moon, are supposed to have been the lineal descendants of Satyavrata, the seventh Manu, during whose life all living creatures, with the exception of himself and his family, were destroyed by a general deluge. Another kingdom was afterward established at Magadha or Bahar, by Jarasaudha, appointed governor of the province by a sovereign of the Lunar race. A list of these kings is given by Sir William Jones, in his " Essay on the Chronology of the Hindus." (Asiat. Research., vol. 2, p. 111, seq., 8vo ed.)-The kings of Ayodhya appear to have conquered the Deccan, and to have introduced the Brahminical faith and laws into the southern part of the peninsula. Such, at least, appears to be the meaning of the Ramayana, according to which, Rama, an incarnation of Vishnu, and the son of the king of Ayodhya, penetrates to the extremity of the peninsula, and conquers the giants of Lauka (Ceylon). This is in accordance with all the traditions of the peninsula, which recognise a period when the inhabitants were not Hindus. We have no means of ascertaining whether these conquests by the monarchs of Ayodhya were permanent; but we know that, in the time of Arrian and Pliny, the Brahminical faith prevailed in the southern part of the peninsula, since all the principal places mentioned by these writers have Sanscrit names. We learn from tradition, and from historical records extant in the Tamul language (Wilson's Descriptive Catalogue of the Oriental MSS. collected by the late Lieutenant-col. Mackenzie.-Taylor's Oriental Historical MSS. in the Tamul language, 2 vols. 4to, Madras, 1835), that three kingdoms acquired, in early times, great political importance in the southern part of the Deccan. These were named Pandya, Chola, and Chera, and are all said to have been founded by natives of Ayodhya, who colonized the Deccan with Hindus from the north. Pandya was the most powerful of these kingdoms: it was bounded on the north by the river Velar, on the west by the Ghauts, though in early times it extended as far as the Malabar coast, and on the south and east by the sea. Its principal town was Madura. The antiquity of this kingdom is confirmed by Pliny, Arrian, and Ptolemy, who all mention Pandion as a king who reigned in the south of the peninsula. The Brahminical colonists appear to have settled principally in the southern parts of the Deccan: the native traditions represent the northern parts as inhabited by savage races till a much later period. This is in accordance with the accounts of the Greek writers. The names of the places on the upper part of the eastern and western coasts are not

Arrian and Pliny as the pirate coast; and the coast of the modern Orissa is said by Arrian to have been inhabited by a savage race called Kirrhada, who appear to be identical with the Kiratas of the Sanscrit writers, and who are represented to have been a race of savage foresters.-The accounts of the Greeks who accompanied Alexander, and more particularly that of Megasthenes, give us, as we have already shown, some information respecting the northern part of Hindustan in the third and fourth centuries before the Christian era. But hardly anything is known of the history of Hindustan from this period to the time of the Mohammedan conquest. There are only a very few historical events of which we can speak with any degree of certainty. After the overthrow of the Greck kingdom of Bactria by the Tartars, B.C. 126, the Tartars (called by the Greeks Scythians, and by the Hindus Sakas) overran the greater part of the northwestern provinces of Hindustan, which remained in their possession till the reign of Vicramaditya I., B.C. 56, who, after adding numerous provinces to his empire, drove the Tartars beyond the Indus. This sovereign, whose date is pretty well ascertained, since the years of the Samvat era are counted from his reign, resided at Ayodhya and Canoj, and had dominion over almost the whole of northern Hindustan, from Cashmere to the Ganges. He gave great encouragement to learning and the fine arts, and his name is still cherished by the Hindus as one of their greatest and wisest princes. He fell in a battle against Salivahana, raja of the Deccan. We also read of two other sovereigns of the same name: Vicramaditya II., A.D. 191, and Vicramaditya III., A.D. 441. The most interesting event in this period of Hindu history is the persecution of the Buddhists, and their final expulsion from Hindustan. It is diffi cult to conceive the reasons that induced the Hindu sovereigns, after so long a period of toleration, to aid the Brahmins in this persecution; more especially as the Jains, a sect strikingly resembling the Buddhists, were tolerated in all parts of Hindustan.-Christianity is said to have been introduced into Hindustan in the first century; according to some accounts, by the apostle Thomas; and, according to others, by the apostle Bartholomew. But there is very little dependance to be placed upon these statements. The first Christians who were settled in any number in Hindustan appear to have been Nestorians, who settled on the Malabar coast for the purposes of commerce. Nestorius lived in the middle of the fifth century; and in the sixth century we learn from Cosmas that Christian churches were established in the most important cities on the Malabar coast, and that the priests were ordained by the Archbishop of Seleucia, and were subject to his jurisdiction. When Vasco de Gama arrived at Cochin, on the Malabar coast, he was surprised to find a great number of Christians, who inhabited the interior of Travancore and Malabar, and who had more than a hundred churches. But these Christians appear to have been the descendants of those Nestorians who emigrated to Hindustan in the fifth and sixth centuries, since there is no reason for believing that any Hindus were converted by their means to the Christian religion. (Encycl. Ús. Knowl., vol. 12, p. 224, seqq.)

INDUS, a celebrated river of India, falling, after a course of 1300 miles, into the Indian Ocean. The sources of this river have not yet been fully explored. Its commencement is fixed, by the most probable conjecture, in the northern declivity of the Calias branch of the Himalaya Mountains, about lat. 31° 20′ N., and long. 80° 30′ E., within a few miles of the source of the Setledge, and in a territory under the dominion of China. Its name in Sanscrit is Sindh or Hindh, an appellation which it receives from its blue colour. Under the name Sindus it was known even to the Ro

mans, besides its more common appellation of Indus. | habitants of the place were known as the Interamnates In lat. 28° 28′, the Indus is joined by five rivers, the Nartes, to distinguish them from those of Interamna ancient names of which, as given by the Greek writers, on the Liris. (Plin., 3, 14.) If an ancient inscripare, the Hydaspes, Acesines, Hydraotes, Hyphasis, tion cited by Cluverius (Ital. Ant., vol. 1, p. 635) be and Xeradrus. These five rivers obtained for the genuine, Interamna, now represented by the wellprovince which they watered the Greek name of Pen- known town of Terni, was founded in the reign of tapotamia, analogous to which is the modern appella- Numa, or about 80 years after Rome. It is noted aftion of Pendjab, given to the same region, and signi- terward as one of the most distinguished cities of mufying in Persian the country of the five rivers."nicipal rank in Italy. This circumstance, however, did (Consult Lassen, Comment. de Pentapot. Indica, 4to, not save it from the calamities of civil war during the Bonna, 1827-Beck, Allgemeines Repertorium, vol. disastrous struggle between Sylla and Marius. (Florus, 1, pt. 2, p. 112.) The Xeradrus, now the Setledge, 3, 21.) The plains around Interamna, which were is the longest of the five rivers just mentioned, and the watered by the Nar, are represented as the most prolongest stream also within the Himalaya range, be- ductive in Italy (Tacit., Ann., 1, 69); and Pliny astween the Indus and the Burrampooter. The union sures us (18, 28), that the meadows were cut four of all the five rivers into one, before they reach the times in the year. Interamna is commonly supposed Indus, was a point in geography maintained by Ptole- to have been the birthplace of the historian Tacitus, my; but, owing to the obscurity of modern accounts, and also of the emperor of the same name. (Cramer's promoted by the splittings of the Indus, and the fre- Anc. Italy, vol. 1, p. 276.)-II. A city of Picenum, in quent approximation of streams running in parallel the territory of the Prætutii; hence called, for distinccourses, we had been taught to regard this as a speci- tion' sake, Prætutiana. (Ptol., p. 62.) It is now Teramen of that author's deficiency of information, till very mo, situate between the small rivers Viziola and Turrecent and more minute inquiries have re-established dino. (Romanelli, Antica Topografia, &c., pt. 3, p. that questioned point, and, along with it, the merited | 298, seqq.)—III. A city of New Latium, situate on credit of the ancient geographer. The five rivers form the Liris, and between that river and the small stream one great stream, called by the natives in this quarter now called Sogne, but the ancient name of which the Cherraub; but in the other countries of India it is Strabo, who states the fact, has not mentioned. It known by the name of Punjund. The united stream was usually called Interamna ad Lirim, for distinction' then flows on between 40 and 50 miles, until it joins sake from the other cities of the same name. Accordthe Indus at Mittun Cote. The mouths of the Indus ing to Livy (9, 28) it was colonized A.U.C. 440, and Ptolemy makes seven in number; Mannert gives them defended itself successfully against the Samnites, who as follows, commencing on the west: Sagapa, now made an attack upon it soon after. (Liv., 10, 36.) the river Pitty; Sinthos, now the Darraway; Aureum Interamna is mentioned again by the same historian Ostium, now the Ritchel; Chariphus, now the Fetty; (26, 9) when describing Hannibal's march from Capua Sapara, Sabala, and Lonibare, of which last three he to Rome. We find its name subsequently among professes to know nothing with certainty. According, those of the refractory colonies of that war. (Liv., however, to other and more recent authorities, the In- 27, 9.) Pliny informs us that the Interamnates were dus enters the sea in one volume, the lateral streams surnamed Lirinates and Succasini. (Plin., 3, 5.) being absorbed by the sand without reaching the ocean. Cluverius imagined that Ponte Corvo occupied the site It gives off an easterly branch called the Fullalee, but of Interamna; but its situation agrees more nearly this returns its waters to the Indus at a lower point, with that of a place called Terame Castrume, in old forming in its circuit the island on which Hyderabad records, and the name of which is evidently a corrupstands. (Malte-Brun, Geogr., vol. 3, p. 13, Am. ed.) tion of Interamna. (Cramer's Anc. It., vol. 2, p. 117.) INO, daughter of Cadmus and Harmonia. (Vid. INUI CASTRUM. Vid. Castrum II. Athamas.)

INOPUs, a river of Delos, watering the plain in which the town of Delos stood. (Strab., 485.Callim., H. in Del., 206.)

INOUS, a patronymic given to the god Palamon, as son of Ino. (Virg., Æn., 5, 823.)

INSUBRES (in Greek 'Icoμbpot), the most numerous as well as the most powerful tribe of the Cisalpine Gauls, according to Polybius (2, 17). It would appear indeed from Ptolemy (p. 64) that their dominion extended at one time over the Libicii, another powerful Gallic tribe in their vicinity; but their territory, properly speaking, seems to have been defined by the rivers Ticinus and Addua. The Insubres took a very active part in the Gallic wars against the Romans, and zealously co-operated with Hannibal in his invasion of Italy. (Polyb., 2, 40.) They are stated by Livy (5, 34) to have founded their capital Mediolanum (now Milan) on their first arrival in Italy, and to have given it that name from a place so called in the territory of the Edui in Gaul. (Plin., 3, 17.-Ptol., p. 63.Consult remarks under the article Gallia, page 531, col. 1.)

INSULA SACRA, an island formed at the mouth of the Tiber, by the separation of the two branches of that river. (Procopius, Rer. Got., 1.- Rutil. Itin., 1, 169.)

INTEMELIUM OF ALBIUM Intemelium, the capital of the Intemelii. (Vid. Albium II.)

INTERAMNA, I. a city of Umbria, so called from its being situated between two branches (inter amnes) of the river Nar. (Varro, L. L., 4, 5.) Hence also the in

When

Io, daughter of Iasus, or, as the dramatic writers said, of Inachus, was priestess of Juno at Argos, and, unhappily for her, was beloved by Jupiter. this god found that his conduct had exposed him to the suspicions of Juno, he changed Io into a white cow, and declared with an oath to his spouse that he had been guilty of no infidelity. The goddess, affecting to believe him, asked the cow of him as a present; and, on obtaining her, set the "all-seeing Argus" to watch her. (Vid. Argus.) He accordingly bound her to an olive-tree in the grove of Mycenae, and there kept guard over her. Jupiter, pitying her situation, directed Mercury to steal her away. The god of ingenious devices made the attempt; but, as a vulture always gave Argus warning of his projects, he found it impossible to succeed. Nothing then remaining but open force, Mercury killed Argus with a stone, and hence obtained the appellation of Argus-slayer ('Apyεipóvτns). The vengeance of Juno was, however, not yet satiated; and she sent a gad-fly to torment Io, who fled over the whole world from its pursuits. She swam through the Ionian Sea, which was fabled to have hence derived its name from her. She then roamed over the plains of Illyria, ascended Mount Hamus, and crossed the Thracian strait, thence named the Bosporus (vid. Bosporus), she rambled on through Scythia and the country of the Cimmerians, and, after wandering over various regions of Europe and Asia, arrived at last on the banks of the Nile, where she assumed her original form, and bore to Jupiter a son named Epaphus. (Vid. Epaphus.)-The legend of Io would not appear to have [attracted so much of the attention of the earlier poets