was besieged by the Romans, under the command of the prætor Lucretius, and, though obstinately defended, was taken by assault, sacked, and utterly destroyed, the inhabitants being sold and their territory given to the Athenians. (Liv., 42, 53.-Polyb., 30, 18.Strab., 411.) The remains of Haliartus, according to Dodwell (vol. 1, p. 248), are situated about fifteen miles from Lebadea, and at nearly an equal distance from Thebes. The place is now called Mikrokouza. Sir W. Gell says, "The ruins of Haliartus lie just below the village of Mazi, on the road from Thebes to Lebadea." (Itinerary, p. 124.)

Apollodorus, however (6, 3), says the chain was call- but gave up the throne willingly to Presbon, grandson ed Hæmus from aiua, "blood," because Typhon hav- of this prince. (Pausan., 9, 34.)-II. A city of Booing been chased hither by Jupiter, waged battle in this tia, situate, according to Strabo, on the lower shore of place against the monarch of the skies, and covered the Copaïc lake, and near the mouth of the Permessus, the mountain with his blood. (Compare the remark of which flows from Helicon. The epithet of noinevra Heyne, ad Apollod., I. c., where this etymology is sta- is attached to this city by Homer (Il., 2, 503.—Hymn. ted to be the offspring of later ages.) The true root is in Apoll., 243), from the numerous meadows and found in the Sanscrit Hema, which connects togeth- marshes in its vicinity, on the side of Orchomenus. er the names of Imaus, Himmala, Hamus, Hymet- (Strab., 407.) Pausanias affirms that Haliartus was tus, in ancient geography, and the appellation Himmel, the only Boeotian city which did not favour the Pergiven to various mountains in Saxony, Jutland, and sians, for which reason its territory was ravaged with elsewhere. (Creuzer, Symbolik, vol. 1, 536. — Creu-fire and sword by their army (9, 32). Haliartus, havzer, Symbolik, par Guigniaut, vol. 1, p. 135.-Gōt-ing favoured the cause of Perseus, king of Macedonia, ting. Gel. auz, 1815, No. 36, p. 357.) This root Hema, otherwise written Himeras, Imos, Jenna, &c., appears to carry with it the idea of height (compare the German himmel, “heaven"), and also that of a snowy or wintry elevation. (Compare the Latin hiems and the Greek xɛipa.-Klaproth, Memoires relatifs a l'Asie, vol. 1, p. 432.)-The length of the chain of Hamus is not less remarkable than its height, extending for 500 miles; one end resting on the Gulf of Venice, and the other on the Black Sea. The modern name is Balcan, which signifies a difficult defile; and it is properly divided into high and low, the latter advancing on each side, like outworks before the great natural rampart. (Walsh's Journey from Constantinople to England, p. 104, Am. ed.) The passage of the Balcan by the Russian forces, in their conflict with the Mussulman power, has excited great interest and called forth considerable applause. From the remarks, however, of a very recent traveller, it would appear that the undertaking was anything but difficult. (Keppel's Journey across the Balcan, vol. 1, p. 301.) HALESUS, I. an Argive, who, after the murder of Agamemnon by Clytemnestra and Ægisthus, settled in Italy, in the vicinity of Mons Massacus, a mountain of Campania. At the head of the Aurunci and Osci, he assisted Turnus against Æneas, but fell by the hand of Pallas. (Virg., En., 7, 724.-Id. ib., 10, 532.) Halesus is said by Virgil to have been the son of a soothsayer, who foretold the fate of his child; and, in order to avert this, if possible, brought him up in the woods. The epithet Agamemnonius, therefore, which Virgil applies to him (En., 7, 724), and which some suppose has reference to his being the son of Agamemnon, is merely used by the poet to denote the pretended origin of his race. (Heyne, Excurs., 8, ad En., 7.)-II. or Hales ("A2ns, -Evros), a river of Asia Minor, running near the city of Colophon, and said to have the coldest water of all the streams of Asia. (Plin., 5, 29,) It took its rise in Mount Gallesus or Gallesium, and fell into the Sinus Ephesius. (Strab., 642.-Cramer's Asia Minor, vol. 1, p. 359.)

HALIAS, a district of Argolis, so called apparently from the fisheries established along the coast, and lying between Hermione and Cape Scyllaeum. Its territory was twice ravaged by the Athenians during the Peloponnesian war. (Thucyd., 2, 56.—Id., 4, 45.) The name of Aliki is still attached to a spot situated a little to the east of Castri. (Pouqueville, vol. 4, p. 255.)

HALICARNASSUS, the principal city of Caria, situate on the northern shore of the Sinus Ceramicus. It was founded by a Doric colony from Træzene, in Argolis, according to Strabo (656). These were joined afterward by some Argives, headed by Melas and Arenanias. (Vitruv., 2,8.-Compare Pausan., 2, 30.) Herodotus, however, only recognises the former colonists (7, 99). This city, on account of its origin, had naturally been included in the Dorian confederation, which consisted originally of six states. But Agasicles, a citizen of Halicarnassus, having, contrary to prescribed custom, carried off the tripod assigned to him in the games celebrated in honour of the Triopian Apollo, instead of dedicating it to the god, the other five cities, in consequence of this offence, determined to exclude Halicarnassus from any participation in these festivities, which amounted, in fact, to an exclusion from the Dorian confederacy, which thenceforth was named Pentapolis. (Herod., 1, 144.) Not long after this event, Halicarnassus may be supposed to have lost its independence, Lygdamis, one of the principal citizens, having usurped the authority. He was succeeded by his daughter Artemisia, of whom Herodotus has made such honourable mention in his history. (Vid. Artemisia, I.) This princess, in all probability, transmitted the sovereign power to her son, named Lygdamis, like his natural grandfather; and it was during his reign that Herodotus, unwilling to see his native city under the denomination of a despot, abandoned it for Samos, where he completed his studies. Subsequent to this period we have little knowledge of what occurred in Halicarnassus; but from Thucydides (2, 9) we learn that Caria and Doris were tributary to Athens, and Halicarnassus itself is mentioned, towards the close of his history, as being in the hands of her troops (8, 42). Somewhat later we find it subject to princes of Carian extraction. The first of these was Hecatomnus, who had three sons, Mausolus, Hidrieus, and Pixodarus; and two daughters, Artemisia and Ada, who married the two elder brothers. Mausolus succeeded his father on the throne of Caria, and, dying HALIARTUS, I. a son of Thersander, said to have without offspring, left the crown to his sister and confounded the city of Haliartus in Boeotia. He was sort Artemisia. She erected to his memory the splen adopted by Athamas, though he did not succeed him, I did mausoleum, or tomb called after his name. (Vid.

HALIACMON, a large and rapid stream of Macedonia, flowing into the sea a short distance below Pydna. It rises in the chain of mountains called Cambunii, or by Ptolemy Canalovii, on the northern confines of Thessaly. The modern name of this river is InidgeCarason, or Jenicora, according to Dr. Brown, who must have crossed it in its course through Elimaa. (Travels, p. 46. So also the editors of the French Strabo, vol. 3, p. 124.) Dr. Clarke calls it Inje-Mauro. The epitomist of Strabo (7, p. 330) seems to place the Haliacmon soon after Dium, as does also Ptolemy (p. 82). This is, however, an error, which apparently misled Dr. Holland, who imagined he had forded this stream about two miles beyond Katima; but what he speaks of is probably the Baphyrus of Livy and Pausanias (vol. 2, p. 31). According to Cæsar (B. C., 3, 36), it formed the line of demarcation between Macedonia and Thessaly. (Cramer's Ancient Greece, vol. 1, p. 217.)

ever, merely increases the difficulty; for why should Strabo, a native of Amasea, be ignorant of the course of a river so near his native city? and why does he make no mention of the southern Halys, when he describes the very ground over which it is supposed to have flowed? Mannert (Geogr., vol. 6, pt. 2, p. 455) thinks, that this southern arm is the river which Tavernier calls the Jekel Ermak, or green river, which D'Anville, on the contrary, makes the modern name of the ancient Iris. The modern name of the Halys is the Kizil Ermak, or red river. According to Strabo (546), the ancient name of the river is owing to its passage in its course by some salt-works. This, however, is a mere arbitrary derivation, and so, in fact, Eustathius evinces, who states that the river was called Halys by those who derived its name from salt; by others, however, Alys. (Eustath., ad Dion. Perieg., v. 784.) This river formed the western boundary of the dominions of Croesus, with which was connected a famous oracle. (Vid. Cræsus.)

Mausoleum.) Artemisia, dying of grief for the loss of | branches, an eastern and a southern one. This, howher husband, was succeeded by Hidrieus, who, having no issue, left the crown to his wife Ada. But Pixodarus, the youngest of Hecatomnus' sons, formed a party against her, and, with the assistance of Orontobates, a Persian satrap, succeeded in expelling her from Halicarnassus. Örontobates, having married the daughter of Pixodarus, remained, on the death of the latter, in possession of Halicarnassus. It was at this period that Alexander arrived with his forces in Caria, and laid siege to the city. It was a long and severe one, owing to the natural strength of the place, and the number and description of the troops which defended it, under the command of Memnon, the best general in the Persian service. Alexander, however, eventually took the place, razed it to the ground, and restored Ada to the sovereignty of Caria. Halicarnassus was afterward rebuilt, and, to compensate for its losses, had six towns annexed to it. (Plin., 6, 29.) The citadel of this place was named Salmacis, from the fountain celebrated in Ovid (Met., 4, 11). According to Scylax, there were two ports at Halicarnassus, protected by the little island Arconnesus. Halicarnassus could boast of having produced Herodotus, Dionysius, and Heraclitus the poet. It appears to have suffered in the Mithradatic war, and to have been restored to a great degree of its former prosperity by Cicero's brother Quintus. (Ep. ad Q. Fratr., 1, 8.) -The ruins of Halicarnassus exist at Boudroun, and Captain Beaufort has given a plan of the harbour and the Turkish town, with the adjacent coast. (Beaufort's Karamania, p. 95, seqq.-Cramer's Asia Minor, vol. 2, p. 176, seqq.) Dr. Clarke, quoting from Walpole's MS. journal, remarks, that Budrun is a corruption, through Petrumi, as the Turks write it, from Pietro, referring to the fort or castle of San Pietro (castellum Sancti Petri), which corresponds to the ancient citadel. (Travels, vol. 3, p. 256, seqq.)

HALICYÆ, ('Aλikúα), a town of Sicily, between Entella and Lilybæum. The modern name is Saleme. (Steph. Byz., s. v.-Diod. Sic., 14, 55.)

son.

HALIRRHOTHIUS, a son of Neptune and Euryte, who committed an outrage on Alcippe, daughter of Mars, and was, in consequence, slain by that deity. Neptune summoned Mars to trial for the murder of his The cause was heard before the twelve gods, sitting as judges, on the Areopagus at Athens; which hill derived its name ("Apɛios πúyoç, " Hill of Mars") from this circumstance. The trial ended in the acquittal of the accused deity. (Apollod., 3, 14.—Schol. ad Eurip., Orest., 1665.) Meier considers Apelos equivalent here to povikós. (Rhein. Mus., 2, p. 266.) HALMYDESSUS. Vid. Salinydessus. HALONNÉSUS, a small island at the opening of the Sinus Thermaïcus, and northeast of Scopelus. It is celebrated in history as having been a subject of contention between Philip the son of Amyntas, and the Athenians; on which occasion one of their orators composed an harangue, which is to be found in the works of Demosthenes, and has been ascribed by some to that celebrated orator. (Orat. 7, Demosth., p. 75. -Strab., 435.-Pomp. Mel., 2, 7.) It is now called Chelidromi. (Cramer's Anc. Greece, vol. 1, p. 451.) HALYS, a celebrated river of Asia Minor, rising on the confines of Pontus and Armenia Minor, and which, after flowing westwardly through Cappadocia to the borders of Phrygia, turns to the northwest, and enters the Euxine some distance to the northwest of Amisus. Herodotus (1, 72) and Strabo (546) both speak of its rising in the region we have mentioned, and pursuing the route described. Pliny (5, 2), however, makes it rise in a far different quarter, viz., in the southern part of Cataonía, near Tyana, at the foot of the chain of Mount Taurus. Larcher (Hist. d'Herod., vol. 8, p. 239.-Table Geogr.) and others seek to reconcile these opposite statements, by giving the Halys two

HAMADRYADES. Vid. Nymphæ.

HAMILCAR (for the orthography and derivation of the name, consult remarks at the end of the article), I. a Carthaginian general, son of Mago, or, according to others, of Hanno, conquered by Gelon, in Sicily, the same day that Xerxes was defeated at Salamis. He rodotus (7, 165) states, that he was never seen either living or dead, after the battle in which his army was defeated. According to Polyænus, however (1 27, 2), Gelon destroyed him by a stratagem while sacrificing-II. Surnamed Rhodanus, a Carthaginian general of considerable talent. Perceiving his fellowcitizens to be greatly disquieted at the projects of Alexander of Macedon, he betook himself to that prince, in order, if possible, to penetrate his designs, and give his countrymen timely notice of them. After the death of that monarch he returned to Carthage, where he was put to death, on false pretensions of treason, as the recompense of his devotion to his country. (Justin, 21, 5.)—III. A Carthaginian general, in the time of Agathocles, tyrant of Sicily. He came to the succour of Syracuse when besieged by this usurper. Being gained over, however, by the gold of Agathocles, he prevailed on the Syracusans to make peace, and favoured by his inaction the schemes of the tyrant. The Carthaginian senate condemned him to lose his head, but he died at Syracuse, B.C. 311, before the sentence could be made public. (Justin, 22, 2.)— IV. The son of Giscon, a Carthaginian general, sent into Sicily about 311 B.C., to oppose the progress of Agathocles. On his arrival he gained a victory, which opened to him the gates of several large cities. In attempting to make himself master of Syracuse, during the absence of Agathocles in Africa, he was taken prisoner and put to death, B.C. 309.-V. Surnamed Barcas, the leader of the popular party at Carthage, was appointed in the eighteenth year of the first Punic war (B.C. 247) to the command of the Carthaginian forces. We possess no particulars respecting his early life or the time of his birth; but we learn from Nepos (Vit. Hamil., c. 1) that he was very young when he obtained the command. He ravaged with his fleet the coast of the Brutii and the Epizephyrian Locrians, and afterward seized upon a strong fortress in Sicily, which was situated between Eryx and Panormus. In this place he continued for some years, with very little support from the Carthaginian government; and, although the Romans were masters of almost the whole of the island, they were unable to dislodge him. He frequently ravaged the southern coasts of Italy as far as Cuma, and defeated the Roman troops in Sicily. On one occasion he took Eryx, which he held till the conclusion of the war. The Romans at length fitted out a fleet to cut off all communication between Hamilcar and Carthage; the Carthaginian fleet sent to his

assistance was defeated by the Roman consul Lutatius | dependence of Saguntum was guarantied by a treaty Catulus, B.C. 241, and the Carthaginians were obliged between the Carthaginians and Romans (concluded to sue for peace. This was granted by the Romans; B.C. 226), and that they should consider any injury and Hamilcar led his troops from Eryx to Lilybæum, done to the Saguntines as a declaration of war against whence they were conveyed to Africa. But a new themselves. Hannibal, however, paid no regard to danger awaited Carthage. The Carthaginian treasury this remonstrance. More than twenty years had was exhausted; and it was proposed to the troops that elapsed since the termination of the first Punic war, they should relinquish a part of the pay which was due during which period the Carthaginians had recovered to them. The soldiers rejected the proposal, appointed their strength, and had obtained possession of the two of their number, Spendius and Matho, command-greater part of Spain; and the favourable opportunity ers, and proceeded to enforce their demands. Being had arrived for renewing the war with the Romans. joined by many of the native tribes of Africa, they In B.C. 219, Hannibal took Saguntum, after a siege of defeated Hanno, the Carthaginian general sent against eight months, and employed the winter in making them, and brought Carthage to the brink of ruin. In preparations for the invasion of Italy. He first provithese desperate circumstances Hamilcar was appointedded for the security of Africa and Spain by leaving an to the command, and at length succeeded in subduing army of about 16,000 men in each country; the army them after the war had lasted three years and four in Africa consisted principally of Spanish troops, and months. After the end of this war Hamilcar was sent that in Spain of Africans, under the command of his into Spain, B.C. 238. He remained in Spain nearly brother Hasdrubal. He had already received promise nine years, during which time he extended the do- of support from the Gauls who inhabited the north of minion of Carthage over the southern and eastern Italy, and who were anxious to deliver themselves parts of that country. He fell in a battle against the from the Roman dominion. Having thus made every natives, B.C. 229. The abilities of Hamilcar were of necessary preparation, he set out from New Carthage the highest order; and he directed all the energies of late in the spring of B.C. 218, with an army of 80,000 his mind to diminish the power of Rome. Polybius foot and 12,000 horse. In his march from the Iberus states his belief (lib. 3), that his administration would to the Pyrenees he was opposed by a great number soon have produced another war with the Romans, if of the native tribes, but they were quickly defeated, he had not been prevented by the disorders in which though with loss. Before crossing the Pyrenees, be his country was involved through the war of the mer-left Hanno to secure his recent conquests with a detachcenaries. Hamilcar was succeeded in his command ment from his own army of 11,000 men. He sent back in Spain by his son-in-law Hasdrubal, who must not the same number of Spanish troops to their own cities, be confounded with Hasdrubal the brother of Hanni- and with an army now reduced to 50,000 foot and bal. He carried on the conquests of Hamilcar, and 9000 horse, he advanced to the Rhone. Meantime, reduced almost the whole of the country south of the two Roman armies had been levied; one, commanded Iberus, which river was fixed by a treaty between the by the consul P. Cornelius Scipio, was intended to Carthaginians and the Romans, B.C. 226, as the fron- oppose Hannibal in Spain; and a second, under the tier of the Carthaginian dominions. Hasdrubal was consul T. Sempronius, was designed for the invasion murdered in his tent by a Gaul, B.C. 221, after holding of Africa. The departure of Scipio was delayed by a the command eight years. (Polyb., 1, 2.-Corn. Nep., revolt of the Boian and Insubrian Gauls, against whom vit. Hamilc., c. 3.-Encycl. Useful Knowl., vol. 12, the army was sent which had been intended for the inp. 25.)-VI. A Carthaginian general, son of Bomil-vasion of Spain, under the command of one of the car, conquered by the Scipios (B.C. 215) when besieging Ilitingis, in Hispania Bætica, along with Hasdrubal and Mago. He is supposed by some to be the same with the Hamilcar who, fifteen years after, at the head of a body of Gauls, took and sacked Placentia, and was defeated and slain before Cremona. Others affirm, that he was taken prisoner three years later in a battle fought near the Mincius, and served to adorn the victory of the conqueror. (Liv., 23, 49.Id., 31, 10.—Id., 32, 23.—Plin., 3, 1.)—The name Hamilcar was equivalent in Punic to "(quem) donavit Milcar." The true orthography is with the initial aspirate. Consult Heins., ad Sil. Ital., 1, 39.-Drakenb., ad Liv., 21, 1.-Gesenius, Phan. Mon., p. 407. -The interpretation given by Hamaker (diatr. 47) to the name Hamilcar is rejected by Gesenius (l. c.).

HANNIBAL (equivalent in Punic to "gratia Baalis"), son of Hamilcar Barcas (vid. Hamilcar V.), was born B.C. 247. At the age of nine he accompanied his father to Spain, who, previous to his departure, took his son to the altar, and, placing his hand on the victim, made him swear that he would never be a friend to the Romans. It does not appear how long Hannibal remained in Spain, but he was at a very early age associated with Hasdrubal, who succeeded his father in the command of the Carthaginian army in that country. On the death of Hasdrubal, B.C. 221, he obtained the undivided command of the army, and quickly conquered the Olcades, Vaccæans, Carpesians, and the other Spanish tribes that had not been subdued by Hasdrubal. The inhabitants of Saguntum, alarmed at his success, sent messengers to Rome to inform the Romans of their danger. A Roman embassy was accordingly sent to Hannibal, who was passing the winter at New Carthage, to announce to him that the in

prætors. Scipio was therefore obliged to remain in Rome till a new army could be raised. When the forces were ready, he sailed with them to the Rhone, and anchored in the eastern mouth of the river; being persuaded that Hannibal must still be at a considerable distance from him, as the country through which he had to march was difficult, and inhabited by many warlike tribes. Hannibal, however, quickly surmounted all these obstacles, crossed the Rhone, though not without some opposition from the Gauls, and continued his march up the left bank of the river. Scipio did not arrive at the place where the Carthaginians had crossed the river till three days afterward; and, despairing of overtaking them, he sailed back to Italy with the intention of meeting Hannibal when he should descend from the Alps. Scipio sent his brother Cnæus into Spain, with the greater part of the troops, to oppose Hasdrubal. Hannibal continued his march up the Rhone till he came to the Isara. Marching along that river, he crossed the Alps, descended into the valley of the Dora Baltea, and followed the course of the river till he arrived in the territories of the Insubrian Gauls. (The particular route will be given at the close of this article.)-Hannibal completed his march from New Carthage to Italy in five months, during which he lost a great number of men, especially in his passage over the Alps. According to a statement engraved by his order on a column at Lacinium, in the country of the Brutii, which Polybius saw, his army was reduced to 12,000 Africans, 8000 Spaniards, and 6000 cavalry when he arrived in the territories of the Insubrian Gauls. After remaining some time in the territories of the Insubrians to recruit his army, he marched southward, and encountered P. Cornelius Scipio on the right bank of the river Ticinus. In the

the whole of Lower Italy in the power of Hannibal, but it was not followed by such important results as might have been expected. Capua and most of the cities of Campania espoused his cause, but the majority of the Italian states continued firm to Rome. The defensive system was now strictly adopted by the Romans, and Hannibal was unable to make any active exertions for the farther conquest of Italy till he received a reinforcement of troops. He was in hopes of obtaining support from Philip of Macedon and from the Syracusans, with both of whom he formed an alliance; but the Romans found means to keep Philip employed in Greece, and Syracuse was besieged and taken by Marcellus, B.C. 214-12. In addition to this, Capua was taken by the Romans, B.C. 211. Hannibal was therefore obliged to depend upon the Carthaginians for help, and Hasdrubal was accordingly

battle which ensued the Romans were defeated, and Scipio, with the remainder of the army, retreating along the left bank of the Po, crossed the river before Hannibal could overtake him, and encamped near Placentia. He afterward retreated more to the south, and intrenched himself strongly on the right bank of the Trebia, where he waited for the arrival of the army under the other consul T. Sempronius. Sempronius had already crossed over into Sicily with the intention of sailing to Africa, when he was recalled to join his colleague. After the union of the two armies, Sempronius determined, against the advice of Scipio, to risk another battle. The skill and fortune of Hannibal again prevailed; the Romans were entirely defeated, and the troops which survived took refuge in the fortified cities. In consequence of these victories, the whole of Cisalpine Gaul fell into the hands of Hannibal; and the Gauls, who, on his first arrival, were pre-ordered to march from Spain to his assistance. Cnæus vented from joining him by the presence of Scipio's army in their country, now eagerly assisted him with men and supplies. In the following year, B.C. 217, the Romans made great preparations to oppose their formidable enemy. Two new armies were levied; one was posted at Arretium, under the command of the consul Flaminius, and the other at Ariminum, under the consul Servilius. Hannibal determined to attack Flaminius first. In his march southward through the swamps of the basin of the Arnus, his army suffered greatly, and he himself lost the sight of one eye. After resting his troops for a short time in the neighbourhood of Fæsulæ, he marched past Arretium, ravaging the country as he went, with the view of drawing out Flaminius to a battle. Flaminius, who appears to have been a rash, headstrong man, hastily followed Hannibal; and, being attacked in the basin of the Lake Trasimenus, was completely defeated by the Carthaginians, who were posted on the mountains which encircled the valley. Three or four days after Hannibal cut off a detachment of Roman cavalry, amounting to 4000 men, which had been sent by Servilius to assist his colleague. Hannibal appears to have enter tained hopes of overthrowing the Roman dominion, and to have expected that the other states of Italy would take up arms against Rome, in order to recover their independence. To conciliate the affections of the Italians, he dismissed without ransom all the prisoners whom he took in battle; and, to give them an opportunity of joining his army, he marched slowly along the eastern side of the peninsula, through Umbria and Picenum, into Apulia; but he did not meet with that co-operation which he appears to have expected. After the defeat of Flaminius, Q. Fabius Maximus was appointed dictator, and a defensive system of warfare was adopted by the Romans till the end of the year. In the following year, B.C. 216, the Romans resolved upon another battle. An army of 80,000 foot and 6000 horse was raised, which was commanded by the consuls L. Æmilius Paulus and C. Terentius Varro. The Carthaginian army now amounted to 40,000 foot and 10,000 horse. The armies were encamped in the neighbourhood of Canna in Apulia. In the battle which was fought near this place, the Romans were defeated with dreadful carnage, and with a loss which, as stated by Polybius, is quite incredible; the whole of the infantry engaged in battle, amounting to 70,000, was destroyed, with the exception of 3000 men, who escaped to the neighbouring cities, and also all the cavalry, with the exception of 300 belonging to the allies, and 70 that escaped with Varro. A detachment of 10,000 foot, which had been sent to surprise the Carthaginian camp, was obliged to surrender as prisoners. The consul L. Æmilius, and the two consuls of the former year, Servilius and Attilius, were also among the slain. Hannibal lost only 4000 Gauls, 1500 Africans and Spaniards, and 200 horse. This victory placed

Scipio, as already observed, was left in Spain_to_oppose Hannibal. He was afterward joined by P. Cornelius Scipio, and the war was carried on with various success for many years, till at length the Roman army was entirely defeated by Hasdrubal, B.C. 212. Both the Scipios fell in the battle. Hasdrubal was now preparing to join his brother, but was prevented by the arrival of young P. Cornelius Scipio in Spain, B.C. 210, who quickly recovered what the Romans had lost. In B.C. 210 he took New Carthage; and it was not till B.C. 207, when the Carthaginians had lost almost all their dominions in Spain, that Hasdrubal set out to join his brother in Italy. He crossed the Alps without meeting with any opposition from the Gauls, and arrived at Placentia before the Romans were aware that he had entered Italy. After besieging this town without success, he continued his march southward; but, before he could effect a junction with Hannibal, he was attacked by the consuls C. Claudius Nero and M. Livius, on the banks of the Metaurus in Umbria; his army was cut to pieces, and he himself fell in the battle. This misfortune obliged Hannibal to act on the defensive; and from this time till his departure from Italy, B.C. 203, he was confined to Brutium; but, by his superior military skill, he maintained his army in a hostile country without any assistance from his government at home. After effecting the conquest of Spain, Scipio passed over into Africa to carry the war into the enemy's country, B.C. 204. With the assistance of Masinissa, a Numidian prince, he gained two victories over the Carthaginians, who hastily recalled their great commander from Italy to defend his native state. Hannibal landed at Septis, and advanced near Zama, five days' journey from Carthage towards the west. Here he was entirely defeated by Scipio, B.C. 202; 20,000 Carthaginians fell in the battle, and an equal number were taken prisoners. The Carthaginians were obliged to sue for peace, and thus ended the second Punic war, B.C. 201. After the conclusion of the war, Hannibal vigorously applied himself to correct the abuses which existed in the Carthaginian government. He reduced the power of the perpetual judges (as Livy, 23, 46, calls them), and provided for the proper collection of the public revenue, which had been embezzled. He was supported by the people in these reforms; but he incurred the enmity of many powerful men, who represented to the Romans that he was endeavouring to persuade his countrymen to join Antiochus, king of Syria, in a war against them. A Roman embassy was consequently sent to Carthage, to demand the punishment of Hannibal as a disturber of the public peace; but Hannibal, aware that he should not be able to resist his enemies supported by the Roman_power, escaped from the city and sailed to Tyre. From Tyre he went to Ephesus to join Antiochus, B.C. 196, and contributed to fix him in his determination to make war against the Romans. If Hannibal's advice as to

the conduct of the war had been followed, the result | naturally appear the most authentic, on account of its of the contest might have been different; but he was early date, as well as of the internal evidence which only employed in a subordinate command, and had no it bears of the truth. Unfortunately, Polybius was opportunity for the exertion of his great military tal-writing to Greeks, and was therefore, as he himself ents. At the conclusion of this war Hannibal was tells them, not anxious to introduce into his narrative obliged to seek refuge at the court of Prusias, king of names of places and of countries in which they were Bithynia, where he remained about five years, and on little interested, and which, if inserted, would rather one occasion obtained a victory over Eumenes, king of have injured than assisted the unity of his story. In Pergamus. But the Romans appear to have been un- consequence of this, although he has been remarkably easy as long as their once formidable enemy was alive. careful in giving us the distances performed by the An embassy was sent to demand him of Prusias, who, Carthaginian army in their march from the Pyrenees being afraid of offending the Romans, agreed to give to the plains of Italy, as well as the time in which they him up. To avoid falling into the hands of his ungen- were completed, he has been generally sparing of his erous enemies, Hannibal destroyed himself by poison proper names, and he has not positively stated in terms at Nicomedia in Bithynia, B.C. 183, in the sixty-fifth the name of that passage of the Alps through which year of his age. The personal character of Hannibal | Hannibal marched. Now, though the distances (which is only known to us from the events of his public life, are positive), and the general description of the counand even these have not been commemorated by any try, and the names of the nations (when these latter historian of his own country; but we cannot read the are mentioned) which the army passed through, afford history of these campaigns, of which we have here sufficient data to prove beyond all doubt that Hannibal presented a mere outline, even in the narrative of his passed by the Alpis Graia, or Little St. Bernard; yet, enemies, without admiring his great abilities and cour- as this is not expressly stated, Livy, who, without acage. Polybius remarks (lib. xi.), "How wonderful knowledgment, has borrowed the greater part of his is it, that in a course of sixteen years, during which own narrative from Polybius, has asserted that he went he maintained the war in Italy, he should never once over the Alpis Cottia, or Mont Genevre; and as Livy dismiss his army from the field, and yet be able, like a is much more read than Polybius, his account has obgood governor, to keep in subjection so great a multi-tained much more credit than it deserves, and has been tude, and to confine them within the bounds of their considered as almost decisive of the question. It has duty, so that they never mutinied against him nor been particularly adopted by almost all the French quarrelled among themsevles. Though his army was writers upon the subject, and though they differ from composed of people of various countries, of Africans, each other as to the road which the army took to arSpaniards, Gauls, Carthaginians, Italians, and Greeks rive at that passage, and, farther, though the account -men who had different laws, different customs, and itself is absolutely inconsistent in many parts, yet the different language, and, in a word, nothing among authority of so great a name has almost set criticism them that was common-yet, so dexterous was his at defiance, and his commentators have endeavoured management, that, notwithstanding this great diversity, to reconcile his contradictions as well as they were he forced all of them to acknowledge one authority, able. It was evident, however, to those who were in and to yield obedience to one command. And this, too, the habit of looking a little deeper than the surface, he effected in the midst of very various fortune. How that Livy's account, which, even when taken by itself, high as well as just an opinion must these things con- was far from satisfactory, was, when compared with vey to us of his ability in war. It may be affirmed that of Polybius, with which it had been generally supwith confidence, that if he had first tried his strength posed to agree, very different in its conclusion; and in the other parts of the world, and had come last to at- this variation between them was so decided, that it tack the Romans, he could scarcely have failed in any was quite impossible that both could be right. Gibpart of his design." (Polyb., 3.. Ib., 7, 8, 9.—Ib., bon was so much struck with this variation, as well 14, 16-Livy, 21-39.-Nepos, Vit. Hannib.-En- as with the respective characters of the two authors as cycl. Us. Knool., vol. 12, p. 40, seq.) historians, that he would have given up Livy at once, The passage of the Alps by Hannibal has already had he not been unable, from his ignorance of the pasbeen alluded to in the course of the present article. sage alluded to by Polybius, to decide the question in Before concluding the biography of the Carthaginian favour of the latter. The opinion of Gibbon appears general, it may not be amiss to direct the student's at- also to have been very much influenced by that of tention more particularly to this point. "This won- D'Anville, an authority to be respected above all othderful undertaking," observes a recent writer," would ers for wonderful accuracy and depth of research in naturally have attracted great notice, if considered matters relating to ancient topography. D'Anville, only with reference to its general consequences, and however, is guided in his opinion by the idea that the to its particular effects on the great contest carried on guides of Hannibal were Taurini, a mistake which is between Rome and Carthage; for this march, which the more extraordinary as Livy himself (21, 29) states carried the war from a distant province to the very them to be Boii. Mr. Holdsworth, who had devoted gates of the former, totally changed the character of much of his time and attention to subjects of this nathe struggle, and compelled the Romans to fight for ture (Spence's Anecdotes of Men and Books), appears existence instead of territory. These events, however, to have detected Livy's inconsistencies as well as Gibare not the only causes which have thrown so much bon, and to have been of opinion that the army crossed interest on the passage of the Alps by Hannibal; for the Alps to the north of the Mont Genevre; but as he the doubt and uncertainty which have existed, even was, as well as Gibbon, unacquainted with the passage from very remote times, as to the road by which the of the Little St. Bernard, he was unable to fix upon passage was effected; the numerous and distinguished the exact spot. It is to General Melville that the litwriters who have declared themselves on different sides erary world has been indebted, in later times, for the of the question; the variation between the two great suggestion of this latter pass; and it is by this sughistorians of the transactions of those times, Polybius gestion that a question so long doubtful has received and Livy; all these things united have involved the a most satisfactory explanation. This gentleman, on subject in difficulties which have increased its impor-his return from the West Indies, where he had held a tance, and which have long exercised many able wri-high military command, turned his whole attention to ters in vain attempts to elucidate them. The relation the investigation of the military antiquities of the Roof Polybius, who lived very soon after the transactions mans, and for this purpose spent some years in travelwhich he describes, and who had himself examined the ling over France, Italy, and Germany, and examined country for the purpose of writing his history, would with great attention the countries which had been the

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