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done with the trophies of the chase, a Gallic village | arms and defy each other to the combat. At first it bore no faint resemblance to a large charnel-house. was a mere sportive encounter; but, if either party Carefully embalmed, and saturated with oil of cedar, chanced to be wounded, passion got so far the better the heads of hostile chieftains and of famous war- of them, that, unless separated by their friends, they riors were deposited in large coffers, and arranged by continued to engage till one or the other of them was their possessor according to the date of acquisition. slain. So far, indeed, did they carry their contempt (Strabo, 198.) This was the book, in which the of death and their ostentatious display of courage, young Gallic warrior loved to study the exploits of that they might be seen agreeing, for a certain sum his forefathers; and each generation, as it passed on- of money or for so many measures of wine, to let ward, strove to add to the contents. To part, for themselves be slain by others; mounted on some money, with the head of a foe, acquired either by elevated place, they distributed the liquor or gold one's own exertions or those of his ancestors, was among their most intimate friends, and then reregarded as the height of baseness, and would have clining on their bucklers, presented their throats fixed a lasting stain on him who should have been to the steel. (Posidonius, ap. Athen., 4, 13.) Othguilty of the deed. Many even boasted of having re- ers made it a point of honour not to retire from fused, when offered by the relations or countrymen of their dwellings when falling in upon them, nor from the deceased, an equal weight of gold for a head thus the flames, nor from the tides of ocean and the inobtained. (Diod. Sic., 5, 29.) Sometimes the scull, undations of rivers; and it is to these foolish bracleansed and set in gold or silver, served as a cup in vadoes that the Gauls owed their fabulous renown of the temples, or circulated in the festivities of the ban- being an impious race, who lived in open war with quet, and the guests drank out of it to the glory of the nature, who drew the sword against the waves, and victor and the triumphs of their country. These fierce discharged the arrow at the tempest.-The working of and brutal manners prevailed for a long period over mines, and certain monopolies enjoyed by the heads the whole of Gaul. Civilization, in its onward march, of tribes, had placed in the hands of some individuals abolished them by degrees, until, at the commence- enormous capitals; hence the reputation for opulence ment of the second century, they were confined to the which Gaul enjoyed at the period of the Roman invasavage tribes of the North and West. It was there sion, and even still later. It was the Peru of the anthat Posidonius found them still existing in all their cient world. The riches of Gaul even passed into a vigour. The sight of so many human heads, disfig- proverb. (Cic., Phil., 12.-Josephus, 2, 28.-Plut., ured by outrages, and blackened by the air and the Vit. Cas.-Suet., Cas., &c.) The sight of the varirain, at first excited in his bosom the mingled emo- ous articles in use among the people at large, both tions of horror and disgust: "however," adds the plated and tinned, whether for domestic use or for war, stoic traveller, with great naïveté, "my eyes became such as utensils for cooking, arms, harness for horses, gradually accustomed to the view." (Strabo, 198.)-yokes for mules, and even sometimes entire chariots The Gauls affected, as more manly in its character, a (Florus, 3, 2), could not fail to inspire the first travelstrong and rough tone of voice (Diod. Sic., 5, 31), to lers into this country with an exaggerated idea of its which, moreover, their harsh and guttural idioms wealth, and contributed, no doubt, to spread a romantic greatly contributed. They conversed but little, and colouring over the accounts that were given of it. To by means of short and concise phrases, which the con- this was added the lavish prodigality of the Gallic chiefstant use of metaphors and hyperboles rendered ob- tains, who freely spent the resources of their families, scure and almost unintelligible to strangers. (Diod. and also those of their dependants, for the purpose of atSic., l. c.) But, when once animated by dispute, or taining to office or securing the favour of the multitude. incited by something that was calculated to interest Posidonius makes mention of a certain Luern or Luer or arouse, at the head of armies or in political assem- (Aovépvioç, Posidon., ap. Athen., 4, 13.-Aovépios, blies, they expressed themselves with surprising co- Strabo, 191), king of the Arverni, who caused a shower piousness and fluency, and the habit in which they in- of gold and silver to descend upon the crowd as often dulged, of employing figurative language, furnished as he appeared in public. He also gave entertainments them, on such occasions, with a thousand lively and in a rude style of barbarian magnificence; a large picturesque images, either for exalting their own space of ground was enclosed for the purpose, and cismerit or putting down an opponent.-The Gauls, interns were dug in it, which were filled with wine, general, were accused of drinking to excess; a habit which took its rise both in the grossness of their manners and in the wants of a cold and humid climate. The Massilian and Italian traders were not slow in furnishing the necessary aliment for the indulgence of this baneful vice. Cargoes of wine found their way, by means of the navigable rivers, into the very heart of the country. The tempting beverage was also conveyed over land in wagons (Diod. Sic., 5, 26), and in various quarters regular establishments were opened for vending the article. To these places the Gauls flocked from every part, and gave, in exchange for the wines of the south, their metals, peltries, grain, cattle, and slaves. So lucrative was this traffic to the vender, that oftentimes a young slave could be procured for a jar of the inebriating liquor. (Diod. Sic, 5, 26.) About the first century, however, of our era, this vice began gradually to disappear from among the higher classes, and to be confined to the lower orders, at least with the nations of the south and east.-Milk and the flesh of animals, especially that of swine, formed the principal aliment of the Gauls. A curious account of their repasts, traced by one who had often sat with them at table, is given by Posidonius (Ap. Athen., 4, 13). After an excessive indulgence in the pleasures of the banquet, they loved to seize their

mead, and beer. (Posidon., l. c.)-Properly speaking, there was no domestic union or family intercourse among the Gallic nations; the females were held in that dependance and servitude which denotes a very imperfect condition of the social state. The husband had the power of life and death over his wife as well as over his offspring. When a person of high rank suddenly died, and the cause of his decease was not clearly ascertained, his wife or wives (for polygamy was practised among the rich) were seized and put to the torture; if the least suspicion was excited of their having been privy to his death, the unfortunate victims perished in the midst of the flames, after the most frightful punishments. (Cas., B. G., 6, 19.) A custom, however, which prevailed in this country about the commencement of our era, shows that even then the condition of females had undergone some degree of melioration: this was the community of goods between husband and wife. Whatever sum the husband received with his wife as a dowry, the same amount he added to it from his own resources; a common stock was thus formed, the interest or profits resulting from which were preserved, and the whole fell to the lot of the surviver. The children remained under the care of their mother until the age of puberty; a father would have blushed to allow his son to appear publicly

in his presence, before the latter could wield a sabre | practised in Samothrace, in Asia, and in India, we find and make a figure on the list of warriors. (Cas., B. G., 6, 18.)-Among some nations of Belgic Gaul, where the Rhine was an object of superstitious adoration, a whimsical custom prevailed; the river was made the means of testing the fidelity of the conjugal state. When a husband had doubts respecting his paternity, he took the new-born infant, placed it on a board, and exposed it to the current of the stream. If the plank and its helpless burden floated safely upon the waters, the result was deemed favourable, and all the father's suspicions were dissipated. If, on the contrary, the plank began to sink, the infant perished, and the parent's suspicions were confirmed. (Julian, Epist., 15, ad Maxim. philos.-Id., Orat., 2, in Constant. imp.-Anthol. Gr., 1, 43, 1.)

no light thrown upon this subject by history. Neither the facts collected by foreign writers, nor any national traditions, furnish us with a positive solution of the difficulty. It may be reasonably conjectured, however, that the Cymri, during their long sojourn either in Asia or on the borders of Asia and Europe, were initiated into religious ideas and institutions, which, circulating at that time from one people to another, eventually spread themselves over all the eastern quarter of the world. Druidism, introduced into Gaul by con quest, organized itself in the domains of the conquerors with greater energy than it had ever done elsewhere; and after it had converted to its dogmas the whole Gallic population, and probably a portion of the Ligures, it continued to have, in the midst of the Cymri, in Armorica, and in Britain, its most powerful colleges 3. Civil and Religious Institutions of the Gauls. of priests and its most secret mysteries. The empire Two privileged orders ruled in Gaul over the rest of of Druidism, however, did not completely stifle that the population: the priests and nobles. The people religion of nature which prevailed before its introducat large were divided into two classes, the inhabitants tion in Britain and Gaul. Every wise and mysterious of the country and the residents of cities. The former system of religion tolerates a fetichism more or less of these constituted the tribes or clients appertaining gross in its character, and calculated to take hold of to noble families. The client cultivated his patron's and keep alive the superstition of the multitude; and domains, followed his standard in war, and was bound this fetichism it seeks to hold always stationary. Stato defend him with his life. To abandon his patron in tionary it therefore remained in the island of Britain. the hour of peril was regarded as the blackest of crimes. In Gaul, therefore, in the eastern and southern sections The residents of cities, on the other hand, found them- of the country, where Druidism had not been imposed selves beyond the control of this system of clientship, by arms, although it had become the ruling religion, and, consequently,' enjoyed greater freedom. Below the early national form of worship preserved more the mass of the people were the slaves, who do not independence, even under the ministry of the Druids appear, however, to have been at any time very nu- who had constituted themselves its priests. It conmerous. The two privileged orders of which we have tinued, then, to be here cultivated, and, following the just made mention, imposed each in its turn a heavy progressive march of civilization and intelligence, it yoke of despotism upon Gaul; and the government of gradually elevated itself from the rudeness of mere this country may be divided into three distinct forms, fetichism to religious conceptions which became more prevailing at three distinct intervals of time; that of and more elevated in character. Thus the immediate the priests, or a theocracy; that of the chieftains of adoration of brute matter, of natural agents and phetribes, or a military aristocracy; and that, finally, of nomena, such as stones, trees (Max. Tyr., 38), winds, the popular constitutions, founded on the principle of and, in particular, the terrible blast denominated Kirk free choice by a majority of voters.-When we exam- or Circius (Senec., Quæst. Nat., 5, 17), lakes, rivers ine attentively the character of the facts relative to the (Posidon., ap. Strab., 188.-Oros., 4, 16.-Greg. religious belief of Gaul, we are led to acknowledge Turon., de Glor. confess., c. 5), thunder, the sun, &c., the existence of two classes of ideas, two systems of gave place, in process of time, to the abstract notion symbols and superstitions entirely distinct from each of spirits or divinities regulating these phenomena, and other; in a word, two religions: one, altogether sen- imprinting a will on these agents. Hence we have, sible in its character, based on the adoration of nat- in a later age, the god Tarann, the spirit of the thunural phenomena, and recalling by its forms much of der (Lucan, Pharsal., 1, 466.- Torann in Gaelic, the polytheism of Greece; the other, founded on a and Tarann in Cymraig and Armoric, mean "thunmaterial, metaphysical, mysterious, and sacerdotal der"); the god Pennin, the deity of the Alps (Liv., pantheism, presenting the most astonishing conformity 21, 38); the goddess Arduinna, presiding divinity with the religions of the East. This latter has re- over the forest of Ardennes, and numerous others. ceived the name of Druidism, from the Druids, who By a still farther effort of abstraction, the general powwere its first founders and priests; the other system ers of nature, that of the human soul, and even of civil has been called the Gallic Polytheism. Even if no society, were also deified. Tarann became the god other testimony existed to prove the priority of the lat- of the skies, the mover of the universe, the supreme ter, in point of time, to Druidism, the natural and in- judge who hurled his angry thunder at mortals. The variable progress of religious ideas among all the na- sun, under the name of Bel and Belen (Auson., Carm., tions of the globe would tend to establish the fact. 2, de Profess. Burdigal.-Tertull., Apoll., c. 24.It is not so, however. The old and valuable traditions Herodian, 8, 3), became a beneficent deity, causing of the Cymric race attribute to this people, in the most salutary plants to spring up and presiding over mediformal and exclusive manner, the introduction of the cine. Heus or Hesus, notwithstanding his Druidic Druidical doctrines into Gaul and Britain, as well as origin, took a station in the polytheism of Gaul, as the the organization of sovereign priesthood. According god of war and conquests; this was probably an interto these traditions, it was the chief of the first invasion, calation of the Druids. In the Cymric traditions Heus Hu, Heus, or Hesus, surnamed "the powerful," who has the character of chief deity, the supreme being. implanted in this territory, which had been conquered (Davies, Welsh Archeol., p. 110.) The genius of by his horde, the religious and political system of Dru-commerce also received the adoration of the Gauls idism. A warrior, a priest, and a legislator during his life, Hesus enjoyed, besides this, a privilege common to all founders of theocracies: he became a god after death. If the question be now put, how Druidism arose among the Cymric race, and from what source originated those striking points of resemblance between its fundamental doctrines and those of the secret religions of the East, between many of its ceremonies and those

under the name of Tuetates (Lactant., Div. Inst., 1, 21.-Min. Felix, c. 30); he was regarded as the inventor of all arts and the protector of routes. The manual arts had also their particular divinities. In fine, the symbol of the liberal arts, of eloquence, and of poesy, was deified under the form of an old man, armed like the Grecian Hercules with a club and bow, but whom his captives gayly followed, attached by the

ear to chains of gold and amber, which proceeded | spoken in the principality of Wales, and called by from his mouth. He was named Ogmius. (Lucian, those who speak it the Cymraig; and the Gaëlic, used Herc.-Opp., ed. Bip., vol. 7, p. 312.-Compare in the highlands of Scotland and in Ireland. History Ritter, Vorhalle, p. 368, seqq.) Coincidences of so gives us no information relative to these original lanstriking a nature with their own mythology could not guages, whether they were introduced into the counfail to surprise Roman observers, nor was it difficult tries where they are spoken posterior to the Roman for them to discover, as they thought, all their own and German conquests; neither does it furnish us gods in the polytheism of Gaul. Cæsar consequently with any grounds for surmising by whom they might informs us, that they acknowledged among their divin- have been so introduced: we are led, therefore, to reities Mercury, Apollo, Mars, Jupiter, and Minerva. gard them as anterior to these conquests, and, conse"Mercury," observes this writer, "is the deity whom quently, as belonging to the primitive population. The they chiefly adore: they have many images of him: question of antiquity being thus disposed of, two other they account him the inventor of arts; their guide in inquiries present themselves. 1. Did these languages travelling and journeys; and imagine that he has a belong to the same people or to different ones? 2. very great influence over trade and merchandise. After Have we any historical proofs that they were spoken him they adore Apollo, Mars, Jupiter, and Minerva, anterior to the establishment of the Romans, and, conof whom they have the same opinion with other na- sequently, of the Germans, and in what portions of tions that Apollo averts diseases; that Minerva first territory? We will attempt to solve these two quesintroduced needlework and manufactures; that Jupiter tions by examining each of these languages in sucholds the supreme power of the heavens; that Mars cession; and first, we will remark, that the Bas-Brepresides over war. To him, whenever they have de- ton attaching itself very closely to the Cymraig, the termined on going to battle, they usually devote the original idioms, of which we are speaking, are reduced spoil they have taken." (Cas., B. G., 6, 17.)-This in fact to three. 1. The Basque. 2. The Gaelic or resemblance between the two systems of religion Gallic. 3. The Cymraig or Cymric. changed into identity when Gaul, subjected to the dominion of Rome, had felt for some years the influence of Roman ideas. It was then that the Gallic polythe- This language, called Euscara by the people who ism, honoured and favoured by the emperors, ended its speak it, is used in some cantons in the southeast of career by becoming totally merged in the polytheism France and northeast of Spain, on both sides of the of Italy; while, on the other hand, Druidism, its mys-Pyrenees: the singularity of its radicals and its gramteries, its doctrine, and its priesthood, were cruelly proscribed, and extinguished amid streams of blood.

4. Origin of the Gauls.

The question to be considered here is this, whether there existed a Gallic family distinct from the other families of nations in the West, and whether it was divided into two races. The proofs which we shall adduce in favour of the affirmative are of three kinds 1st, philological, deduced from an examination of the primitive languages of the west of Europe: 2d, historical, drawn from the Greek and Roman writers: 3d, likewise historical, deduced from national traditions among the Gauls.

I. Proofs drawn from an examination of languages. In the countries of Europe, called by the ancients Transalpine Gaul and Britain, embracing, at the present day, France, Switzerland, the Low Countries, and the British Isles, various languages are spoken, which all, however, range themselves under two great classes: one, that of the languages of the South, draws its origin from the Latin, and embraces all the dialects of the Romans and French; the other, that of the Northern languages, is descended from the ancient Teutonic or German, and prevails in a part of Switzerland and the Low Countries, in England, and in the lowlands of Scotland. Now we know historically that the Latin language was introduced into Gaul by the Roman arms; we know, also, that the Teutonic languages, spoken in Gaul and in Britain, may be in like manner traced to the conquests of the Teutonic or German tribes these two main languages, therefore, introduced from without, are strangers to the primitive population, that is to say, to the population which occupied the countries in question anterior to these conquests. But in the midst of so many new-Latin and new-Teutonic dialects, we find in some parts of France and Britain the remains of primitive languages, completely distinct from the two great classes of which we have just made mention. Of these, France contains two, the Basque, spoken in the western Pyrenees, and the Bas-Breton, more extensively spread not long ago, but at present confined to the extremity of ancient Armorica. Britain likewise possesses two, the Welsh,

1. Of the Basque Language.

matical construction distinguish it no less from the Cymric and Gallic tongues, than from the derivatives of the Latin and Teutonic. Its antiquity cannot be doubted, when we see that it has furnished the oldest appellations for the rivers, mountains, cities, and tribes of ancient Spain. Its great extension is no less certain. The learned researches of Humboldt have disof almost the whole of Spain, especially the eastern covered its imprint in the geographical nomenclature and southern provinces. (Humboldt, Prüfung der Untersuchungen über die Urbewohner Hispaniens, vermittelst der Vaskischen Sprache, Berlin, 1821.) In Gaul, the province called Aquitania by the Romans, and comprehended between the Pyrenees and the course of the Garonne, presents also, in its earliest geography, numerous traces of this language. Similar be found, more altered and of rarer occurrence, it is true, along the Mediterranean, between the Oriental Pyrenees and the Arno, in the region called by the ancients Liguria, Celto-Liguria, and Ibero-Liguria. A large number of names of men, dignities, and institutions, mentioned in history as belonging to the Iberians, or else to the Aquitani, are easily explained by the aid of the Basque language. From all this we may deduce the legitimate presumption that the Basque is a remnant of the ancient Spanish or Iberian language, and the population who speak it at the present day are a fragment of the Iberian race. That this race, in language at least, had nothing in common with the nations speaking the Gaelic and Cymric. 3. That they occupied, in Gaul, the two great cantons of Aquitania and Gallic Liguria.

traces may

2.

2. Of the Gaelic or Gallic tongue. The Gaelic or Gallic, according to the mode of pronouncing the name, is spoken in the highlands of Scotland, in Ireland, the Hebrides, and the Isle of Man. There is no trace of any other idiom having been in use previously in these quarters, since most of the denominations of places, communities, and individuals belong exclusively to this language. If we follow its vestiges by means of geographical and historical nomenclatures, we will find that the Gaelic has prevailed in the whole of the lowlands of Scotland and in England, whence it appears to have been driven out by the Cymric tongue: we may recognise it also

in a portion of the south, and in all the east of Gaul, | connected by philologists with the Sanscrit, the anin upper Italy, in Illyria, and in central and western cient and sacred idion of India. Spain. It is the eastern and southern provinces, how- Having completed our examination of the languages ever, of Gaul that bear the most evident marks of the in question, we may deduce from this review of them passage of this tongue. It is only by the aid of a the following historical inferences. 1. An Iberian popGaelic glossary that we can discover the signification ulation, distinct from the Gallic, inhabited several canof geographical names, dignities, institutions, individu-tons in the south of Gaul, under the names of Aquials, &c., belonging to the primitive population of this tani and Ligures. 2. The Gallic population, properly country. Still farther, the patois of the east and south so called, was divided into Galli and Cymri. 3. The of France at the present day swarms with words that Galli had preceded the Cymri on the soil of Britain, are strangers to the Latin, and which are discovered and probably also on that of Gaul. 4. The Galli and to be taken from the Gaelic tongue. From these the Cymri formed two races, belonging to one and the facts we may deduce the following inferences: 1. that same human family. the race which spoke Gaelic, in distant ages, occupied the British isles and Gaul, and that from this centre the language spread itself over many cantons of Italy, Spain, and Illyria. 2. That it preceded in Britain the race which spoke the Cymric.

3. Of the Cymric tongue.

II. Proofs drawn from the Greek and Roman histo

rians.

1. Gallic Nations beyond the Alps. Cæsar acknowledges throughout the whole extent of Gaul, with the single exception of the province of Narbonne, three nations, "differing in language, institutions, and laws: the Aquitani, dwelling between the Pyrenees and the Garonne; the Belga, occupying the northern parts of the country, from the Rhine to the Marne and Seine; and the Galli, called also Cel

That part of Britain which is called the country or principality of Wales, is inhabited, as is well known, by a people who bear in their mother-tongue the name of Cymri or Kymri; and from the most distant period they have known no other. Authentic literary monuments attest that this language, the Cymraig or Cym-tæ, established in the central quarter of the land.” ric, was cultivated with great éclat about the sixth He gives to these three communities, taken collectcentury of our era, not only within the actual limits of ively, the general name of Galli, which in this case the principality of Wales, but along the whole west- is nothing more than a mere geographical designation. ern coast of England, while the Anglo-Saxons, a Ger- Strabo adopts the division of Cæsar, but with an immanic population, occupied by conquest the centre and portant change. In place of limiting the Belgæ, as the east. An examination of the geographical and his- Cæsar does, to the course of the Sein, he adds to torical nomenclatures of Britain, anterior to the arrival them, under the name of paroceanites, or maritime of its German invaders, proves also, that, before this (Tapwkɛavírov), all the tribes established between the epoch, the Cymric prevailed throughout the whole mouth of this river and that of the Loire, and known southern part of the island, where it had succeeded to in Gallic geography by the appellation of Armoricans, the Gaelic, which had been banished to the north. We which equally signifies "maritime," and of which the have already stated, that the Bas-Breton, or Armoric term paroceanites appears to be merely a Greek transtongue, spoken in a part of Brittany, was a Cymric lation. This arrangement of Strabo's merits the greatdialect. The intermixture of a great number of Latin er attention, not only because that great geographer and French words has altered, it is true, the aspect was well acquainted with the Roman authors who of this dialect; yet historical monuments bear full tes- had written upon Gaul, but also derived much infortimony to the fact, that, about the fifth century, it was mation from the travels of Posidonius, and the laalmost identically the same with that of the island of bours of the learned among the people of Massilia Britain, since the natives of this island, who fled to or Marseilles. These two opinions, however, relative Armorica to escape from the Anglo-Saxons, found in to the Belge, may be easily reconciled, as we shall see this latter country, it is said, a people who spoke the in the sequel. The geographers of a later period, Mesame language with themselves. (Adelung, Mithra-la, Pliny, Ptolemy, &c., either conform to the ethnodates, vol. 2, p. 157.) The names, moreover, drawn graphic division given by Caesar, or to the one traced from geography and history, clearly show, that this by Augustus after the reduction of Gaul to a Roman idiom was spoken anterior to the fifth century in the province. In all this the Narbonnaise is not comprewhole of the west and north of Gaul. This tract of hended: now, we find in the ancient writers that it country then, as well as the southern portion of the contained, besides the Celtæ or Galli, Ligurians, stranisle of Britain, must have been anciently peopled by gers to the Gauls (¿τepoεtveis.—Strab., 137), and also the race that spoke the Cymric tongue. But what Phocean Greeks, who composed the population of is the generic name of this race? Is it the Armori-Massilia and its dependencies.-There existed then, can?-Is it the Breton?—Armorican, which signifies "maritime," is a local, not a generic, appellation; while, on the other hand, Breton appears to have been nothing more than the name of a particular tribe. We will adopt then, provisorily, as the true name of this race, that of Cymri, which from the sixth century has served to designate it in the isle of Britain.-As regards the two idioms of the Cymric and Gaelic, it may not be amiss to state the following general particulars. The basis of both is undoubtedly the same, and both spring from some common tongue. By the side, however, of this striking similitude in the roots and in the general system of the composition of words, we cannot fail to observe great discrepances in the grammatical structure, discrepances essential in their character, and which constitute two distinct languages, two separate tongues, though sisters to each other, and not two dialects of the same tongue. It should also be remarked, that the Gallic and the Cymric belong to that great family of languages, the source of which is

in the indigenous population of Gaul, four different branches: 1. The Aquitani; 2. The Ligures; 3. The Galli or Celta; 4. The Belga.—We will consider each of these in succession.

1. The Aquitani.

"The Aquitani," observes Strabo (189.-Id., 176) "differ essentially from the Gallic race, not only in language, but also in physical conformation: they resemble the Iberians more than they do the Gauls." He adds, that the contrast afforded by two Gallic nations confined within the limits of Aquitania, made the distinctive features of the race we are considering the more apparent. According to Cæsar, the Aquitani had, besides a peculiar dialect, institutions of a peculiar and separate character. Now, historical facts show that these institutions bore, for the most part, the stamp of the Iberian character; that the national dress was Iberian; that there existed stronger ties of amity and alliance between the Aquitanian and Iberian tribes,

than between the former and the Gauls, who were separated from them merely by the Garonne; in fine, that their virtues and their vices were assimilated in the closest manner to that standard of good and evil qualities which appears to have constituted the moral type of the Iberian race. We find, then, a concordance between the proofs drawn from history and those deduced from an examination of languages: the Aquitani were, beyond doubt, an Iberian population.

2. Ligures.

upper Languedoc, are rendered conspicuous all of a sudden, and for the first time, by an expedition which they sent into Greece. (Justin, 24, 4.- Strabo, 187.) About the year 218, at the time of Hannibal's passage, the Volca Arecomici, inhabiting lower Languedoc, are also cited (Liv., 21, 26) as a numerous people, giving the law throughout all the surrounding country. It is, then, between 340 and 281 that we must place the arrival of the Volca and the conquest of Ibero-Liguria.-The manuscripts of Cæsar, in speaking of the Volcæ, have indifferently Volca or Vol

the primitive name of the Tectosages was Bolge; and Cicero (Pro M. Fonteio.-Dom. Boug., Rec. des Hist., &c., p. 656) calls them Belga. Saint Jerome relates, that the idiom of their colonies established in Galatia in Asia Minor, was still in his time the same with that of Trèves, the capital of the Belge, and Saint Jerome had travelled both in Gaul and the East. (Hieron., 1. 2, Comment. Epist. ad Galat., c. 3.) After this, it is hardly permitted us to doubt but that the Volca were Belge, or, rather, that these two names were one and the same; and the details of their history, for they played an important part in the affairs of Gaul, furnish numerous proofs in support of their Belgic origin. We must therefore separate this people from the Ligurian population, with which they have nothing in common. In conclusion, we infer, that the Ligures were Iberians; a second accordance of history with philological inductions. We have therefore remaining only the Galli or Celte, and the Belgæ, as containing the elements of the Gallic population properly so called.

3. Cellæ.

The Ligures, whom the Greeks call Ligyes, are des-ga. Ausonius (Clar. Urb. Narb., 9) informs us, that ignated by Strabo as strangers to Gaul. Sextus Avienus, whose labours were based upon documents which had been left by the Carthaginians, and who, consequently, must have been put in possession of much valuable matter connected with the ancient history of Iberia, places the primitive seats of the Iberi in the southwest of Spain, whence, after a long succession of conflicts, the invasion of the conquering Celts had compelled them to remove. (Avien., v. 132, seqq.) Stephanus of Byzantium also places in the southwest of Spain, near Tartessus, a city of the Ligures, which he calls Ligystiné (Aɩyvorivý). Thucydides subsequently shows us the Ligures, expelled from the southwestern part of the peninsula, arriving on the eastern borders of the Sicoris or Sègre, and driving away in their turn the nation of the Sicani. (Thucyd., 6, 2.) He does not give this as a simple tradition, but as an incontestible fact. Ephorus and Philistus of Syracuse held the same language in their writings, and Strabo believes that the Sicani were originally Iberians. The Sicani, driven from their country, forced their way through the eastern passes of the Pyrenees, traversed the Mediterranean shore of Gaul, and entered Italy. The Ligures must have followed them, since There is no necessity whatever for our demonstrawe find the latter nearly at the same time spread over ting the identity of the Celtæ and Galli; it is given, the whole Gallic and Italian coasts, from the Pyrenees as fully established, by all the ancient writers. The as far as the Arno. We know, by the unanimous tes- signification, however, of the term Celt is a subject timony of the ancient writers, that the west and the open to inquiry. Cæsar informs us (B. G., 1, 1), that centre of Spain had been conquered by the Celta or it is drawn from the language of the Gauls: and, in Galli; but we are uninformed as to the period when fact, it does indeed belong to the present Gallic idiom, this took place. The movements of the Sicani and in which ceilt and ceiltach mean "an inhabitant of the Ligures show us that the invasion was made by the forests." This signification leads to the presumption western passes of the Pyrenees, and that the Iberian that the name was a local one, and was applied either tribes, driven back on the eastern coast, began to move to a tribe, or to a confederation of tribes, occupying onward into Gaul and even Italy. They furnish us certain cantons; and that it consequently had a special also with an approximation to the date when this took and restricted meaning. Indeed, the great Gallic conplace: the Sicani, expelled from Italy, as they had federations were for the most part local. The testibeen from Spain, seized upon the island of Sicily about mony of Strabo may be cited in support of this hythe year 1400 B.C. (Freret, Euvr. compl., vol. 4, p. pothesis. The geographer informs us, that the Gauls 200), which places the irruption of the Celta into Ibe- of the province of Narbonne were formerly called ria about the sixteenth century before the Christian Celta; and that the Greeks, particularly the Massiliera.-Although, after what has been said, the Iberian ots, entering into commercial relations with them beorigin of the Ligures appears to be placed beyond the fore becoming acquainted with the other nations of reach of doubt, it must nevertheless be acknowledged, Gaul, erroneously took their name as the common apthat their manners did not bear so strong an Iberian pellation for the whole Gallic race. (Strab., 189.) stamp as those of the Aquitani: the reason would Some, and Ephorus among the rest, even extended it seem to be, that they did not preserve themselves beyond the limits of Gaul, and made of it a geographfrom foreign intermixture. History tells us of power-ical denomination for all the races of the West. ful Celtic tribes intermingled with them in Celto-Li- (Strab., 34.) Notwithstanding, however, these erroguria, between the Alps and the Rhone; at a still la-neous ideas, which throw much obscurity over the acter period, Ibero-Liguria, between the Rhone and counts of the Greek writers, many authors of this naSpain, was subjugated almost entirely by a people who tion speak of the Ceita in the special and limited sense were total strangers to the Ligures, and who bore the which accords with the opinion of Strabo. Polybius name of Volca. The date of this invasion of the (3, 37) places them "around Narbo;" Diodorus SicuVolcæ into Ibero-Liguria (now Languedoc) cannot be lus (5, 32)," above Massilia, in the interior of the counfixed with any precision. The most ancient recitals, try, between the Alps and Pyrenees ;" Aristotle (Gen. whether mythological or historical, and the peripluses Anim., 2, 8), " above Iberia ;" Dionysius Periegetes, down to that of Scylax, which appears to have been " beyond the sources of the Po" (v. 280). Finally, written about 350 B.C., make mention only of the Eustathius, in his commentary on the last-mentioned Ligures, Elesyces, Bebryces, and Sodes, in the whole writer, revives the vulgar error, which attributes to the canton; the Elesyces are even represented as a pow-whole of Gaul the name of a single canton. Vague erful nation, whose capital Narbo (now Narbonne) flourished in commerce and in arms. About the year 281, the Volca Tectosages, inhabiting what is now

though they are, these designations appear clearly to specify the country situate between the Ligurian frontier to the east, the Garonne to the south, the plateau

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