dure. The style of Gaius, like that of all the classi- | Spain when Julius Vindex, the proconsul of Celtic cal Roman jurists, is perspicuous and yet concise. One of the most useful editions is that by Klenze and Böcking (Berlin, 1829), which contains the Institutions of Gaius and Justinian, so arranged as to present a parallelism, and to furnish a proof, if any yet were wanting, that the MS. of Verona is the genuine work of Gaius. (Encycl. Us. Knowl., vol. 11, p. 34. Consult Göschen, on the "Res Quotidiana" of Gaius, in the Zeitschrift für Geschichtliche Rechtwissenschaft, Berlin, 1815, and Hugo, Lehrbuch der Gesch. des Röm. Rechts.)

Gaul, rose against Nero. Galba joined Vindex, and Otho, governor of Lusitania, followed his example. The assembled multitudes saluted Galba as emperor and Augustus; but he declared that he was only acting as the lieutenant of the senate and people of Kome, in order to put an end to the disgraceful tyranny of Nero. The prætorian guards soon after, having revolted against Nero, proclaimed Galba, and the senate acknowledged him as emperor. Galba hastened from Spain to Rome, where he began by calling to account those favourites of Nero who had enriched themselves GALANTHIS, a servant-maid of Alcmena, whose sa- by proscriptions and confiscations, and by the senseless gacity eased the sufferings of her mistress. When prodigality of that prince; but it was found that most Juno resolved to retard the birth of Hercules, and of them had already dissipated their ill-gotten wealth. hasten the labours of the wife of Sthenelus, she soli- Galba, or, rather, his confidants who governed him, cited the aid of Lucina, who immediately repaired to then proceeded against the purchasers of their property, the dwelling of Alcmena, and, in the form of an aged and confiscations became again the order of the day. female, sat near the door with her feet crossed and The new emperor, at the same time, exercised great fingers joined. In this posture she uttered some ma- parsimony in his administration, and endeavoured to gical words, which served to prolong the sufferings enforce a strict discipline among the soldiers, who had of Alcmena. Alcmena had already passed some days been used to the prodigality and license of the previous in the most excruciating torments, when Galanthis be- reign. Being past seventy years of age, Gaiba, on gan to suspect the jealousy of Juno; and concluded this and other accounts, soon became the object of that the female, who continued at the door always in popular dislike and ridicule, his favourites were hated, the same posture, was the instrument of the anger of and revolts against him broke out in various quarters, the goddess. Influenced by these suspicions, Galan- several of which were put down and punished severethis ran out of the house, and with a countenance ex-ly. Galba thought of strengthening himself by adoptpressive of joy, she informed the aged stranger that her mistress had just brought forth. Lucina, at these words, rose from her posture, and that instant Alcmena was safely delivered. The laugh which Galanthis raised upon this, made Lucina suspect that she had been deceived. She seized Galanthis by the hair, threw her on the ground, and transformed her into a weasel. (Ovid, Met., 9, 306, seqq.)-This whole fable is connected with a legend prevalent among the Thebans, that, when Alcmena was suffering from the pangs of parturition, a weasel (ya27) ran by and terrified her by its sudden appearance, and that the terror thus excited eased her throes and produced a happy delivery. (Ælian, V. H., 12, 5.) Hence the weasel was highly revered by the Thebans, and was called by them the nurse of Hercules. (Clem. Alex., Protr., p. 25, 6.)

GALATE, the inhabitants of Galatia. (Vid. Galatia.)

GALATEA and GALATHEA, a sea-nymph, daughter of Nereus and Doris. She was passionately loved by the Cyclops Polyphemus, whom she treated with disdain; while Acis, a shepherd of Sicily, enjoyed her unbounded affection. The union, however, of the two lovers was destroyed by the jealousy of Polyphemus, who crushed his rival with a fragment of rock, which he rolled on him from an overhanging height. Galatea was inconsolable for the loss of Acis, and as she could not restore him to life, she changed him into a stream. (Ovid, Met., 13, 789.-Virg., Æn., 9, 103.)

GALATIA OF GALLOGRECIA, a country of Asia Minor, lying south of Paphlagonia, west of Pontus, and northeast of Phrygia. (Vid. Gallo-Græcia.)

ing Piso Licinianus, a young patrician of considerable personal merit, as Cæsar and his successor; upon which Otho, who had expected to be the object of his choice, formed a conspiracy among the guards, who proclaimed him emperor. Galba, unable to walk, caused himself to be carried in a litter, hoping to suppress the mutiny; but, at the appearance of Otho's armed partisans, his followers left him, and even the litter-bearers threw the old man down and ran away. Some of the legionaries came up and put Galba to death, after a reign of only seven months, counting from the time of Nero's death, A.D. 68. Galba was 72 years old when he was taken off. He was succeeded by Otho, but only for a short time, as Vitellius superseded him, and Vespasian soon after superseded Vitellius. (Sueton., Vit. Galb.--Tacit., Hist., 1, 4, seqq. -Dio Cass., 63, 29.—ld., 64, 1, seqq.)

GALENUS, CLAUDIUS, a celebrated physician, born at Pergamus about 131 A.D. His father, an able architect and good mathematician, gave him a liberal education. His anatomical and medical studies were commenced under Satyrus, a celebrated anatomist; Stratonicus, a disciple of the Hippocratic school; and Æschrion, a follower of the Empirics. After the death of his father he travelled to Alexandrea, at that time the most famous school of medicine in the world. His studies were so zealously and successfully pursued, that he was publicly invited to return to his native country. At the age of 34 he settled himself at Rome, when his celebrity became so great from the success of his practice, and more especially from his great knowledge of anatomy, that he quickly drew upon himself the jealousy of all the Roman physicians. He became physician to the Emperor Marcus Aurelius. At GALBA, I. Sergius, an orator anterior to Cicero. the solicitation, also, of many philosophers and men of While holding the government of Spain, he treacher-rank, he commenced a course of lectures on Anatomy; ously murdered 30,000 Lusitanians. Having been but the jealousy of his rivals quickly compelled him to accused for this by Cato the Censor, he was about to discontinue them, and eventually to leave Rome enbe condemned, when he wrought upon the feelings of the people by embracing before them his two sons, still quite young. This saved him. (Cic., Orat., 1, 53)-II. Servius Sulpitius, a celebrated Roman lawyer, father of the emperor.-III. Servius Sulpitius, born in the reign of Augustus, of a patrician family, served with distinction in Germany, was afterward proconsul, first in Africa, and subsequently in Hispania Tarraconensis, in which office he gained a reputation for justice and moderation. He was still in

tirely. Many particulars of his life may be gathered from his own writings; we are unacquainted, however, with the period of his return home, as well as that of his death. All that we can learn is merely that he was still living in the reign of Septimius Severus.Galen was a most prolific writer. Though a portion of his works were lost by the conflagration of his dwelling, or have been destroyed by the lapse of time, still we have the following productions of his surviving and in print. 1. Eighty-two treatises, the genuineness of

which is now well established. 2. Eighteen of rather | Throughout, as the learned Mr. Harris has well redoubtful origin. 3. Nineteen fragments, more or less marked, he, in imitation of Aristotle, inculcates, with extensive in size. 4. Eighteen commentaries on the irresistible strength of argument, the great doctrine of works of Hippocrates. To these published works Final Causes, maintaining, in opposition to the Epimust be added thirty or forty treatises or parts of trea- cureans, that Means do not lead to Ends, but Ends to tises, which still exist in manuscript in the public li- Means. As to his Physiology, it is in general foundbraries of Europe. The number of works that are lost, ed upon careful dissection, accurate experiment, and among which were fifty that treated on medical subjects, philosophical induction; so that, in most instances is supposed to have been one hundred and sixty-eight.- where it has been departed from, subsequent experiThe instruction which Galen had received in the princi- ence has shown the correctness of its doctrines. Thus ples of the different sects of medical philosophy, had the distribution of the nerves into nerves of sensation given him an acquaintance with the various errors of and nerves of muscular motion, and the distinction beeach, and he speaks of them at all times in the lan- tween the characters of the cerebral and spinal nerves, guage of no measured contempt. The school which was although clearly pointed out by him, and acquiesced in founded by himself may justly merit the title of Eclec- by Oribasius, Theophilus, and Nemesius among his tic, for its doctrines were a mixture of the philosophy countrymen, and by Rhazes, Serapion, Avicenna, of Plato, of the physics and logic of Aristotle, and of Avenzoar, and Averrhoes among the Arabians; nay, the practical knowledge of Hippocrates. On many oc- though admitted by his modern rival Vesalius, were casions he expresses himself strongly on the superiority overlooked or denied by subsequent physiologists, unof theory to mere empiricism; but upon those matters til the doctrine was lately revived by an intelligent lecwhich do not admit of being objects of experience, such turer on anatomy in London. In the hands of several as the nature of the soul, he confesses his ignorance, English and French experimentalists, this theory has and his inability to give any plausible explanation. undergone different modifications; but I will venture Among the productions of Galen that are of a philo- to predict, that, when time has deprived it of the charm sophical character, may be enumerated the following: of novelty, the additions and alterations which have A treatise "On the best Doctrine" against Phavorinus; been made by modern hands upon the ancient doca dissertation "On the opinions of Hippocrates and trine, will be found to be rather blemishes than imPlato;"" a commentary on the Timæus of Plato," provements. With regard to the functions of the arand several pieces " On Dialectics." Galen has been teries and veins, Galen's views must be admitted to frequently censured for impiety; but his Demonstration be not very distinctly defined; but has the celebrated of Divine Wisdom from the structure of the human theory of Harvey removed all the difficulties, and clearbody, in his treatise "On the uses of the parts of the ed away all the obscurity, which hung over this imhuman body," is a sufficient refutation of this calum-portant department of physiology? Let the following ny. The following sketch of the professional charac-declaration, by one of the most distinguished among ter of this celebrated physician is given by Dr. Adams. the present physiologists of France, be taken as a test "Galen, to whom medicine, and every science allied of the degree of precision which now prevails upon this to it, are under so great obligations, was a man skilled subject: Il n'existe pas deux ouvrages de Physiologie, in all philosophy, a profound reasoner, an ardent ad- deux traités de Medicine, où la circulation soit decrite mirer of truth, a worthy member of society, and a dis- et considerée dans le même manière.' (Magendre, tinguished ornament of his profession. Though, ac-Jour. de Phys.) At all events, it is clear that Galen cording to his own account, unambitious of fame, he had the merit of establishing two important facts reacquired a name which for fourteen centuries was above garding the function of the arteries; first, that they every other name in his profession, and even now contain blood, and not vapour or gas, as mentioned by stands pre-eminently illustrious. We shall give a Erasistratus; and, secondly, that it is the expansion or hasty sketch of his merits in the different branches of diastole of the artery which is the cause of the influx of medical science to which he directed his attention. the blood, and not the influx of the blood which is the Wisely judging that an acquaintance with the minute cause of the expansion of the artery. The former of structure of the human body was an indispensable prep- these facts Harvey himself does him the justice of allowaration to a knowledge of its derangements, he de-ing that he maintained; and a late French physiologist, voted himself ardently to the study of anatomy, in which his works evince that he was eminently skilled. In his Administrationes Anatomica particularly, almost every bone and process of bone, every twig of nerve, every ramification of blood vessel, every viscus, muscle, and gland, with which modern anatomists are acquainted, are described by him with a degree of minuteness which will surprise those who entertain a mean opinion of the Galenical anatomy. Vesalius, indeed, a zealot for human dissection in the days of the Emperor Charles the Fifth, strenuously attacks the accuracy of his anatomical descriptions; and as he was constantly on the lookout for mistakes, he is no doubt sometimes successful in attaining the object of his search; but, in other instances, while endeavouring to set Galen right, he only goes wrong himself. For example, he finds fault with Galen for saying that the fourth ventricle of the brain is lined by a membrane; but it is now well ascertained that here Galen was right, while his censurer was wrong. In fact, the justness of Vesalius' strictures has been too easily acquiesced in, although most of them had been previously rebutted by the learned Eustachius.-Galen's treatise De usu Partium' is replete with accurate anatomical descriptions, ingenious physiological theory, and sound theology, and in all these respects need not fear a comparison with our Paley's work on natural theology.

Dumas, compliments him for having held the latter opinion, although it is at variance with Harvey's views respecting the circulation. In his work on the Natural Faculties he has expressed fully his sentiments upon a subject which is still far from being cleared up; but it is remarkable, that very lately a theory has been advanced, which corresponds, in a great degree, with the doctrine advocated by Galen. I allude to Dutrochet's famous theory of the Endosmose and Exosmose, which powers, if I mistake not, are but different names for the Attractive and Expulsive Faculties of Galen.-Operative Surgery is the department of his profession which is least indebted to him; and yet even here he has left some monuments of his boldness and ingenuity. He has described minutely an operation performed by him upon the chest of a young man, by which he perforated the breast-bone, and laid bare the heart, in order to give vent to a collection of matter seated in the thorax. The subject of Ulcers is handled by him very scientifically in his book De Methodo Medendi. It is to be remarked, that his definitions and divisions of ulcers are the same as those adopted by one of our best English writers on this subject, Mr. Benjamin Bell. His Commentaries on Hippocrates show his acquaintance with Fractures and Dislocations.-Of Hygiene, or the Art of Preserving Health, he treated at great length in a work consisting of six books. His treatise De Fac

ultate Alimentorum contains very important observa- | the mountainous nature of the country, to maintain tions on the nature of aliments, and furnishes an ex- themselves against all invaders. Strabo enumerates position of his opinion on the subject of Dietetics. It among its inhabitants, Egyptians, Arabians, and Phoneed not fear a comparison with the work lately pub-nicians. (Strab., 760.) Lower Galilee, which conlished on Diet by Dr. Paris. I do not state this in dis-tained the tribes of Zebulon and Asher, was adjacent paragement of the latter, whom I esteem to be a very to the Sea of Tiberias or Lake of Gennesareth. Galjudicious authority, but to intimate my opinion that we ilee, according to Josephus, was very populous, conhave not advanced much in the knowledge of this tained 204 cities and towns, and paid 200 talents in branch since the time of Galen.-Of most diseases tribute. Its principal city was Cæsarea Philippi. The he has treated either fully or cursorily in some part or inhabitants of Galilæa were very industrious, and, beother of his works, but upon the whole he has given no ing bold and intrepid soldiers, they bravely resisted the comprehensive treatise upon the practice of physic. nations around them. The Jews of Judæa regarded His most complete treatises are those entitled De Cu- them with much contempt. Their language was a ratione, ad Glauconem, and the Ratio Curandi.-The corrupt and unpolished dialect of Syriac, with a mixMateria Medica and Pharmacy appear to have been the ture of other languages. It was probably this corrupt objects of his particular study, and both are handled by dialect that led to the detection of Peter as one of him in several of his works. Though his list of me- Christ's disciples. (Mark, 14, 70.) Our Saviour dicinal articles, taken from the vegetable kingdom, be was called a Galilean (Matt., 26, 69), because he was less numerous than that of Dioscorides, he has de- brought up at Nazareth, a city of Galilæa; and as his scribed more animal and mineral substances. His apostles were mostly, if not all, natives of this provtreatise De Medicinis secundum locos contains a copi-ince, they also are called Galileans and "men of Galous list of pharmaceutical preparations; and that part ilee." (Acts, 1, 11.) This country was most honof it on Compositions for the Eyes might, I am con- oured by our Saviour's presence. To this part Jovinced, be consulted with advantage by the oculists of seph and Mary returned with him from Egypt; here the present day. Of all his works, none was long so he lived till he was thirty years of age, and was bapmuch studied and commented upon as the one entitled tized by John; hither he returned after his baptism Ars Medica, respecting which Kühn remarks: Est and temptation; and in this province was his place of is in Galeni libris, quem grata erga tantum virum pos- residence when he commenced his ministry. The teritas æstimavit longe maximi, quem omnes schola ex-population being very great, he had more opportuniplicabant, quem medici diurna nocturnaque manu ver- ties of doing good here than in any other portion; on sabant, quem legisse debebant ceu librum Galeni max-which account, probably, he made it his principal ime authenticum omnes, cujusque puncta debebant ex- abode. After his resurrection he directed his apostles plicare, speciminis causa prius, quam licentiam prax-to come to Galilee to converse with him. (Matt., eos medica exercendæ consequerentur.' Of a treatise 28, 7.-Consult, in relation to this country, the follong so celebrated, and now so little known, it is scarce- lowing parts of Scripture: Josh., 20, 7, and 21, 32.ly safe to express an opinion, lest we should be reduced 1 Kings, 9, 11.-2 Kings, 15, 29.-1 Chron., 6, 76. to the alternative of either reproaching antiquity for-Isaiah, 9, 1.-Matt., 2, 22; 3, 13; 4, 12.—Luke, want of sense, or modern times for want of discern- 4, 14.-John, 7, 41.-Acts, 5, 37, and 10, 37.) ment. At all events, however, we may venture to af- GALLI, I. a warlike race of antiquity. (Vid. Galfirm, that, if the Doctrine of the Temperaments have lia.)-II. A name borne by the priests of Cybele. any foundation in nature, no one had ever studied them (Vid. Cybele.) more attentively, or described them with greater precision, than Galen has done in this treatise.-In several works he gives an elaborate system of the Arterial Pulses, which, as usual with his doctrines, was taken up by all subsequent writers; and abridged expositions of it may be found in Philaretus, Paulus Egineta, Actuarius, Rhazes, and Avicenna. The reader may find some candid remarks upon it in Borden's Physiology, who, although an advocate for a new system, gives not an unfair statement of the system of Galen." The best edition of Galen is that of Kühn, 19 vols. 8vo, Lips., 1821-1830.

GALLIA, an extensive and populous country of Europe, bounded on the west by the Atlantic, on the north by the Insula Batavorum and part of the Rhenus or Rhine, on the east by the Rhenus and the Alps, and on the south by the Pyrenees. The greatest breadth was 600 English miles, but much diminished towards each extremity, and its length was from 480 to 620 miles. It was therefore more extensive than modern France before the Revolution, though inferior to the kingdom under Napoleon, which was 650 miles long from east to west, and 560 broad from north to south. Gaul was originally divided among the three GALERIUS, a Roman emperor. (Vid. Maximianus.) great nations of the Belga, the Celta, and the AquiGALESUS, I. now Galeso, a river of Calabria, flow- tani. The Romans called the inhabitants of this ing into the bay of Tarentum. The poets have cele- country by one general name, Galli, while the Greeks brated it for the shady groves in its neighbourhood, and styled them Celta. The Greeks called the country the fine sheep which fed on its fertile banks, whose itself Galatia, Celtica (KeλTIK), and Celto-Galatia; fleeces were said to be rendered soft by bathing in the the last for distinction' sake from Galatia in Asia Mistream. (Martial, Ep., 2, 43; 4, 28.-Virg., G., 4, 126.nor. Of the three great nations of Gaul, the Celta -Horat., Od., 2, 6, 10.)-II. A rich inhabitant of La- were the most extensive and indigenous, and the Beltium, killed as he attempted to make a reconciliation between the Trojans and Rutulians, when Ascanius had killed the favourite stag of Tyrrheus, which was the prelude of all the enmities between the hostile nations. (Virg., Æn., 7, 535.)

ge the bravest. The Celta extended from the Sequana or Seine in the north, to the Garumna or Garonne in the south. Above the Celta lay the Belge, between the Seine and Lower Rhine. They were intermixed with Germanic tribes. The Aquitani lay between the GALILEA, a celebrated country of Palestine, form- Garonne and Pyrenees, and were intermingled with ing the northern division. Josephus (Bell. Jud., 3, 3) Spanish tribes. These three great divisions, however, divides it into Upper and Lower, and he states that were subsequently altered by Augustus, B.C. 27, who the limits of Galilee were, on the south, Samaris and extended Aquitania into Celtica as far as the Liger or Scythopolis to the flood of Jordan. It contained four Loire; the remainder of Celtica above the Liger was tribes, Issachar, Zebulon, Naphthali, and Asher; a called Gallia Lugdunensis, from the colony of Lugpart also of Dan, and part of Peræa, or the country dunum, Lyons; and the rest of Celtica towards the beyond Jordan. Upper Galilee was mountainous, Rhine was added to the Belge under the title of Beland was called Galilee of the Gentiles, from the hea-gica; lastly, the south of Gaul, which, from having then nations established there, who were enabled, by been the first provinces possessed by the Romans, had

been styled Gallia Provincia, was distinguished by the | with flint or shells; clubs; spears hardened in the name of Narbonensis, from the city of Narbo or Narbonne. This province was anciently called also Gallia Braccata, from the bracce or under-garments worn by the inhabitants; while Gallia Celtica was styled Comata, from the long hair worn by the natives. These four great provinces, in later ages, were called the four Gauls, and subdivided into 17 others.

fire, and named gaïs (in Latin gasum, in Greek yaioóv and yaloós); and others called cateïes, which they hurled all on fire against the enemy. (In Gaelic, gath teth, pronounced ga-tè, signifies "a fiery dart.") Foreign traffic, however, made them acquainted, in process of time, with arms of iron, as well as with the art of manufacturing them for themselves from the copper and iron of their own mines. Among the arms 1. General remarks on the Gallic race. of metal which thenceforward came into use, may be As far back as we can penetrate into the history of mentioned the long sabre of iron or copper, and a pike the West, we find the race of the Gauls occupying that resembling our halberds, the wound inflicted by which part of the continent comprehended between the Rhine, was considered mortal. For a long time the Transalthe Alps, the Mediterranean, the Pyrenees, and the pine, as well as the Cisalpine, warriors of the Gallic Ocean, as well as the two great islands situate to the race had rejected the use of defensive armour as innorthwest, opposite the mouths of the Rhine and consistent with true courage; and, for a long period, Seine. Of these two islands, the one nearer the conan absurd point of honour had induced them even to tinent was called Alb-in, "White Island." (Alb sig-strip off their vestments, and engage naked with the nifies "high" and "white :" inn, contracted from innis, foe. This prejudice, however, the fruit of an ostenmeans "island."-Compare the remark of Pliny, 14, tatious feeling natural to the race, was almost entirely 16, "Albion insula, sic dicta ab albis rupibus quas effaced in the second century. The numerous relamare alluit.") The other island bore the name of tions formed between the Gauls and the Massiliots, Er-in, "Isle of the West" (from Eir or Iar, "the Italians, and Carthaginians, had at first spread a taste west"). The continental territory received the spe- for armour, as a personal decoration, among the Gallic cial appellation of Galltachd, "Land of the Galls." tribes; in a short time the conviction of its utility was The term Gaeltachd, or, more correctly, Gaidheal- superadded; and the military costume of Rome and tachd, is still applied to the highlands of Scotland. Greece, adopted on the banks of the Loire, the Rhone, From this word the Greeks formed Taharia (Galatia), and the Saône, formed a singular combination with and from this latter the generic name of Tahára. the ancient array of the Gaul. To a helmet of metal, The Romans proceeded by an inverse method, and of greater or less value according to the fortune of the from the generic term Galli deduced the geographical warrior, were attached the horns of an elk, buffalo, or denomination Gallia. The population of Gaul was stag; while for the rich there was a headpiece repredivided into families or tribes, forming among them-senting some bird or savage beast; the whole being selves many distinct communities or nations. These surmounted by a bunch of plumes, which gave to the nations generally assumed names deduced from some warrior a gigantic appearance. (Diod. Sic., 5, 28.) feature of the country in which they dwelt, or from Similar figures were attached to their bucklers, which some peculiarity in their social state. Oftentimes they were long, quadrangular, and painted with the brightunited together, in their turn, and formed confedera- est colours. These representations served as devices tions or leagues. Such were the confederations of for the warriors; they were emblems by means of the Celta, Edui, Armorici, Arverni, &c.-The Gaul which each one sought to characterize himself or strike was robust and of tall stature. His complexion was terror into the foe. (Compare Vegetius, 2, 18.—Sil. fair, his eyes blue, his hair of a blond or chestnut col- Ital., 4, 148.)—A buckler and casque after this model; our, to which he endeavoured to give a red or flaming a cuirass of wrought metal, after the Greek and Ro hue by certain applications. (Plin., 28, 12.-Martial, man fashion, or a coat of mail formed of iron rings, 8, 33.) The hair itself was worn long, at one time after the manner of Gaul (Varro, L. L., 4, 20); an floating on the shoulders, at another gathered up and enormous sabre hanging on the right thigh, and susconfined on the top of the head. (Diod. Sic., 5, 28.) pended by chains of iron or brass from a belt glittering The beard was allowed to grow by the people at large; with gold and silver, and adorned with coral; a colthe nobles, on the other hand, removed it from the lar, bracelets, rings of gold around the arm and on the face, excepting the upper lip, where they wore thick middle finger (Plin., 33, 1); pantaloons; a sagum mustaches. (Diod. Sic., l. c.) The attire common hanging from the shoulders; in fine, long red musto all the tribes consisted of pantaloons or bracca taches; such were the martial equipments and such (braca, bracca, braga; brykan in Cymraig; bragu in the appearance of an Arvernian, Æduan, or Biturigan Armoric). These were of striped materials. (In noble.-Hardy, daring, impetuous, born, as it were, Celtic breac means 66 a stripe.") They wore also a for martial enterprises, the Gallic race possessed, at short cloak, having sleeves, likewise formed of striped the same time, an ingenious and active turn of mind. materials, and descending to the middle of the thigh. They were not slow in equalling their Phoenician and (Strabo, 196.) Over this was thrown a short cloak or Grecian instructers in the art of mining. The same sagum (sae, Armoric.-Compare Isidor., Origin., 19, superiority to which the Spaniards had attained in tem24), striped like the shirt, or else adorned with flowers pering steel, the Gauls acquired in the preparation of and other ornamental work, and, among the rich, su- brass. Antiquity assigns to them the honour of variperbly embroidered with silver and gold. (Virg., En., ous useful inventions, which had hitherto escaped the 8, 660.-Sil. Ital., 4, 152.-Diod. Sic., 5, 28.) It earlier civilization of the East and of Italy. The procovered the back and shoulders, and was secured under cess of tinning was discovered by the Bituriges; that the chin by a clasp of metal. The lower classes, how- of veneering by the Edui. (Plin., 34, 17.) The ever, wore in place of it the skin of some animal, or dyes, too, of Gaul were not without reputation. (Plin., else a thick and coarse woollen covering, called, in 8, 48.) In agriculture, the wheel-plough and boulter the Gallo-Kimric dialects, linn or lenn. (In Armoric were Gallic discoveries. (Plin., 18, 18. — Id. ibid., len means "a covering ;" and in Gaelic lein signifies 18, 11.) With the Gauls, too, originated the employ“a soldier's cloak."-Compare the Latin lana and ment of marl for enriching the soil. (Plin., 18, 6, the Greek haiva and xhaiva.)-The Gauls possessed seqq.) The cheeses of Mount Lozere, among the Gaa strong taste for personal decoration it was custom-bali; those of Nemausus; and two kinds made among ary with the rich and powerful to adorn themselves the Alps, became, in time, much sought after by the with a profusion of collars, bracelets, and rings of gold. inhabitants of Italy (Plin., 11, 49); although the Ital(Strabo, 196.)-The offensive arms of the nation were, ians generally ascribed to the Gallic cheeses a savour at first, hatchets and knives of stone; arrows pointed of too acid a nature and somewhat medicinal. (Plin.,

1. c.) The Gauls also prepared various kinds of fer- | intemperate persons, and were, besides, punished with mented drinks; such as barley-beer, called cerevisia a heavy fine. (Strabo, 196.)-In preparing for for(Plin., 22, 15.—In old French, Cervoise; in Cym-eign expeditions, a chieftain of acknowledged valour raig, Curv.); and likewise another kind of beer, made generally formed a small army around him, consisting, from corn, and in which honey, cumin, and other in- for the most part, of adventurers and volunteers who gredients were mingled. (Posidon., ap Athen., 4, 13.) had flocked to his standard: these were to share with The froth of beer was employed as a means for leav-him whatever booty might be obtained. In internal ening bread it was used also as a cosmetic, and the wars, however, or defensive ones of any importance, Gallic females frequently applied it to the visage, un-levies of men were forcibly made; and severe punder the belief that it imparted a freshness to the com-ishments were inflicted on the refractory, such as the plexion. (Plin., 22, 25.) As regarded wine, it was loss of noses, ears, an eye, or some one of the limbs. to foreign traders that the Gauls and Ligurians were (Cas., B. G., 7, 4.) If any dangerous conjuncture indebted for its use; and it was from the Greeks of occurred; if the honour or safety of the state were Massilia that they learned the process of making it, as about to be compromised, then the supreme chief conwell as the culture of the vine.-The dwellings of the vened an armed counsel (Cæs., B. G., 5, 66). This Gauls, spacious and of a round form, were construct- was the proclamation of alarm. All persons able to ed of posts and hurdles, and covered with clay both bear arms, from the youth to him advanced in years, within and without; a large roof, composed of oak were compelled to assemble at the place and day indishingles and stubble, or of straw cut and kneaded with cated, for the purpose of deliberating on the situation clay, covered the whole. (Strabo, 196.-Vitruv., 1, 1.) of the country, of electing a chief, and of discussing -Gaul contained both open villages and cities: the the plan of the campaign. It was expressly provided latter, surrounded by walls, were defended by a system by law, that the individual who came last to the place of of fortification, of which we find no example elsewhere. rendezvous should be cruelly tortured in the presence Cæsar gives the following description of these ram- of the assembled multitude. (Cas., B. G., 5, 66.) parts (B. G., 7, 23). "Straight beams, placed length- This form of convocation was of rare occurrence; it wise at equal intervals, and two feet distant from each was only resorted to in the last extremity, and more other, are laid along the ground. These are mortised frequently in the democratic cities than in those whero together on the inside, and covered deep with earth; but the aristocracy had the preponderance. Neither inthe intervals are stopped in front with large stones. firmities nor age freed the Gallic noble from the necesThese being fixed and cemented together, another sity of accepting or sueing for military commands. range is put over, the same distance being preserved, Oftentimes were seen, at the head of the forces, and the beams not touching each other, but intermit- chieftains hoary and almost enfeebled by age, who ting at equal spaces, and each bound close together could even scarcely retain their seats on the steed by a single row of stones. In this manner the whole which supported them. (Hirt., B. G., 8, 12.) This work is intermixed till the wall is raised to its full people would have believed that they dishonoured height. By this means the work, from its appearance their aged warriors by making them die elsewhere and variety, is not displeasing to the eye; the beams than on the field of battle.-To the fierce vivacity of and stones being placed alternate, and keeping their the attack and to the violence of the first shock, were own places in exact right lines: and besides, it is of reduced nearly all the military tactics of the Gauls, great advantage in the defence of cities; for it is seon level ground and in pitched battle. In the mountcured by the stone from fire, and from the battering- ainous regions, on the other hand, and especially in ram by the wood, which, consisting of entire beams, the vast and thick forests of the north, war had a close forty feet long, for the most part mortised on the in- resemblance to the chase: it was prosecuted in small side, could neither be forced in nor torn asunder."- parties, by ambuscades and all sorts of stratagems; Such would seem to have been the fortifications of the and dogs, trained up to pursue men, tracked out, and cities in the civilized and populous part of Gaul. To aided in conquering the foe. These dogs, equally the north and east, among the more savage tribes, serviceable for the chase and for war, were obtained there were no cities properly so called; the inhabi- from Belgic Gaul and from Britain. (Strabo, 196. tants resided for the most part in large enclosures, Sil. Ital., 10, 77.-Ovid, Met., 1, 533.—Martial, formed of trunks of trees, and calculated to repel by these rude intrenchments the assaults of a disciplined as well as undisciplined foe.-Besides his habitation in the city, the rich Gaul generally possessed another in the country, amid thick forests and on the banks of some river. (Cæs., B. G., 6, 30.) Here, during the heat of summer, he reposed from the fatigues of war; but he brought along with him, at the same time, all his equipments and retinue, his arms, his horses, his esquires. In the midst of the storms of faction and the civil dissensions, which marked the history of Gaul in the first and second centuries, these precautions were anything else but superfluous.

3, 47.) A Gallic army generally carried along with it a multitude of chariots for the baggage, which embarrassed its march. (Hirt., B. G., 8, 14.-Cas., B. G., 1, 51.) Each warrior bore a bundle of straw, put up like a sack, on which he was accustomed to sit in the encampment, or even in the line of battle while waiting the signal to engage. (Hirt., B. G., 8, 15.)-The Gauls, like other nations, for a long period were in the habit of killing their prisoners of war, either by crucifixion, or by tying them to trees as a mark for their weapons, or by consigning them to the flames amid horrid rites. Long prior, however, to the second century of our era, these barbarous practices were laid aside, and the captives of transalpine nations 2. General habits of the Gallic race. had nothing to fear but servitude. Another custom, not It was, as we have already remarked, in war, and less savage, that of cutting off the heads of their slain in the arts applicable to war, that the genius of the enemies on the field of battle, was not slower in disapGauls displayed itself to most advantage. This peo- pearing. It was long a settled rule in all wars, that the ple made war a regular profession, while the manage-victorious army should possess itself of such trophies as ment of arms became their favourite employment. To these; the common soldiers fixed them on the points have a fine martial mien, to retain for a long period of their spears, the horsemen wore them suspended strength and agility of body, was not only a point of honour for individuals, but a duty to the state. At regular intervals, the young men went to measure their size by a girdle deposited with the chief of the village, and those whose corpulence exceeded the official standard were severely reprimanded as idle and

by the hair from the poitrels of their steeds; and in this way the conquerors returned to their homes, making the air resound with their triumphal accla mations. (Strabo, 197.) Each one then hastened to nail up these hideous testimonials of his valour to the gate of his dwelling; and, as the same thing was