a common practice with Chrysippus, at different times, | to Herodias, who sought the head of Johm in a charto take the opposite sides of the same question, and thus furnish his antagonists with weapons, which might easily be turned, as occasion offered, against himself. Carneades, who was one of his most able and skilful adversaries, frequently availed himself of this circumstance, and refuted Chrysippus by convicting him of inconsistency. Of his writings nothing remains, except a few extracts which are preserved in the works of Cicero, Plutarch, Seneca, and Aulus Gellius. He died in the 143d Olympiad, B.C. 208, at the age of eighty-three. A statue was erected to his memory by Ptolemy. (Diog. Laert., 7, 189.-Enfield's History of Philosophy, vol. 1, p. 358.) CHRYSOCERAS, or the horn of gold, a name given to the harbour of Byzantiuin. (Vid. Byzantium.) CHRYSOPOLIS, a town and harbour opposite Byzantium, on the Asiatic shore. It is often mentioned in history. The Athenians established there a toll, towards the close of the Peloponnesian war, to be paid by all ships coming from the Euxine. (Xen., Hist. Gr., 1, 1, 14.—Polyb., 4, 44, 3.) The ten thousand Greeks were encamped there for some days prior to crossing over into Thrace. (Xen., Anab., 6, 6, 22.) It is mentioned by Strabo (563) as a small town, and Pliny says, "Fuit Chrysopolis" (5, 32). Several historians, however, of a later date, continue to speak of it. (Zosim., 2, 30.-Socrat., Hist. Eccles., 1, 4.Amm. Marcell., 22, 12.) Stephanus of Byzantium gives various etymological derivations of the name. The modern Scutari is thought to correspond to the ancient place. (Cramer's Asia Minor, vol. 1, p. 191, seq.) CHRYSORRHOAS, or Golden Stream, a river of Syria, near Damascus. It rises in Mount Libanus, and, after leaving its native valley, divides itself into five small streams near the village of Dumar. The main one of these flows through Damascus, while two others water the gardens in the plain of El-Gutha. All the streams unite subsequently, and their collected waters empty into the sea. The Chrysorrhoas is the same with the Bardine or Amana (in Scripture Abana, 2 Kings, 5, 12), now the Baradi. (Abulfeda, Tab. Syr-Burckhardt, p. 37.-Von Richter, Wallfahrt, p. 154, seqq.) ger, the anger of Eudoxia was not altogether unjustifiable. The consequence of her resentment was the assembling of another synod, and in A.D. 404 the patriarch was again deposed and sent into exile. The place of his banishment was Cucusus, a lonely town among the ridges of Mount Taurus, on the confines of Cappadocia and Cilicia. He sustained himself with much fortitude; but having, by means of his great influence and many adherents, procured the intercession of the western emperor, Honorius, with his brother Arcadius, he was ordered to be removed still farther from the capital, and died on the journey at Comana in Pontus, A.D. 407, at the age of sixty. Opinion was much divided in regard to his merits for some time after his death, but at length his partisans prevailed, and, thirty years from his decease, he was removed from his place of interment as a saint, and his remains were met in procession by the Emperor Theodosius the younger, on their removal from the place of his original interment to Constantinople. Chrysostom was a voluminous writer, but more eloquent than either learned or acute. Although falling short of Attic purity, his style is free, copious, and unaffected, and his diction often glowing and elevated. The numerous treatises or sermons by which he chiefly gained his reputation, are very curious for the information they contain on the customs and manners of the times, as elicited by his declamation against prevailing vices and follies. The first entire Greek edition of the works of Chrysostom was that of Sir Henry Saville, at Eton, in 8 vols. folio, 1613; but that of Montfaucon, Paris, with annotations and his life, 11 vols. folio, 1718, is by far the most complete. (Gorton's Biogr. Dict., vol. 1, p. 485.) CHRYSOTHĚMIS, I. a daughter of Agamemnon and Clytemnestra.-II. A Cretan, who first obtained the poetical prize at the Pythian games. (Pausanias, 10, 7.) CIBILÆ, a town of Lower Pannonia, situate on the Saavus, about fifty miles from Sirmium, and about one hundred from the confluence of the Saavus and Danube. It was famous for the defeat of Licinius by Constantine, A.D. 315, and was also the birthplace of Gratian. Its name is preserved in the obscure ruins of Savilei. (Eutropius, 10, 4.—Amm. Marcellinus, 30, 24.) CHRYSOSTOM (St. John), an eminent father of the church, was born of a noble family at Antioch, A.D. 347. His father's name was Secundus, and the sur- CIBYRA, I. a flourishing commercial city in the name of Chrysostom, or "golden mouth" (Xpvcóσro-southwest angle of Phrygia, between Lycia and Caμos), obtained by the son, was given to him on account ria. It was surnamed the Great for distinction' sake of his eloquence. He was bred to the bar, but quitted from another city of the same name situate in Pamit for an ascetic life: first, with a monk on a mount-phylia. Cibyra seems to have been originally a small ain near Antioch, and then in a cave by himself. He town of the Cabalees, from whom the tract of Cabalia remained in this retirement six years, when he re- or Cabalis took its name. On the accession, however, turned to Antioch, and, being ordained, became so of a Pisidian colony, the site was changed, the town celebrated for his talents as a preacher, that, on the considerably enlarged, and the name gradually altered death of Nectarius, patriarch of Constantinople, he from Cabalis, or some analogous form, to that of Cibwas chosen to supply his place. On obtaining this yra. The place became very prosperous, and its prospreferment, which he very unwillingly accepted, he perity was chiefly owing to the excellence of its laws, acted with great vigour and austerity in the reform of though the government was that of an absolute monabuses, and exhibited all the mistaken notions of the archy. Under this government were included the day in regard to celibacy and the monastic life. He three old Cabalian towns of Bubon, Balbura, and Enoalso persecuted the pagans and heretics with great zeal, anda, and these, together with the capital Cibyra, and sought to extend his episcopal power with such constituted a tetrapolis. Each of these towns had one unremitting ardour, that he involved himself in a quar-vote in the general assembly of the states, except rel with Theophilus, bishop of Alexandrea, who en- Cibyra, which had two, in consideration of its supejoyed the patronage of the Empress Eudoxia; which rior power. This city, as we are told by Strabo, quarrel ended in his formal deposition by a synod held could raise no less than 30,000 foot and 2000 horse, at Chalcedon A.D. 403. He was, however, so popu- and its influence and power extended over a part of lar in Constantinople, that a formidable insurrection Pisidia, Milyas, and Lycia, as far as Peræa of the ensued, and the empress herself interfered for his re- Rhodians. (Strab., 631.) After its conquest by the turn. Towards the end of the same year, owing to Romans, we find Cibyra mentioned as the chief city his zeal relative to a statue of Eudoxia, placed near the of a considerable forum or conventus, comprising not great church, and causing a disturbance of public wor- less than twenty-five towns. (Cic., Ep. ad Att., 5, 21. ship, all his troubles were renewed. If true, that in-Plin., 5, 29.) According to Tacitus (Ann., 4, 13), one of his sermons the empress was compared by him Cibyra, having been nearly destroyed by an earth quake, was afterward restored by Tiberius. In later writers we find it included within the limits of Caria. (Hierocl., 690.) Strabo reports, that there were four dialects in use at Cibyra: that of the ancient Solymi, the Greek, the Pisidian, and the Lydian; the latter, however, he adds, was quite extinct even in Lydia. The Cibyrate excelled in engraving on iron or steel. (Strab., 631.) No trace of the ruins of Cibyra has as yet been discovered. They are to be found, however, in all probability, not far from Denisli, or Laodicea, on a river which is either the Lycus or a branch of it. (Cramer's Asia Minor, vol. 2, p. 269, seqq.)-II. A town on the coast of Pamphylia, southeast of Aspendus, called Cibyra Parva, for distinction' sake from the preceding. Ptolemy annexes it to Cilicia Trachea. Its site corresponds to that of the modern Ibu-structer Philo. (Warburton, Div. Leg., lib. 3, sec. rar. (Strab., 667.) two years under pretence of his health, which he tells us was yet unequal to the exertion of pleading. (De Clar., Or., 91.) At Athens he met with T. Pomponius Atticus, whom he had formerly known at school, and there renewed with him a friendship which lasted through life, in spite of the change of interest and estrangement of affection so commonly attendant on turbulent times. Here too he attended the lectures of Antiochus, who, under the name of an Academic, taught the dogmatic doctrines of Plato and the Stoics. Though Cicero at first evinced considerable dislike of his philosophical views, he seems afterward to have adopted the sentiments of the Old Academy, which they much resembled, and not until late in life to have relapsed into the sceptical tenets of his earlier in3.-Vossius, de Nat. Log., c. 8, sec. 22.) After visitCICERO, MARCUS TULLIUS, a celebrated Roman ora- ing the principal philosophers and rhetoricians of Asia, tor, was born at Arpinum, the native place of Marius, he returned at the age of thirty to Rome, so strengthB.C. 107, the same year which gave birth to Pom- ened and improved both in bodily and mental powers, pey the Great. His family was ancient, and of eques- that he soon eclipsed in speaking all his competitors trian rank, but had never taken part in public affairs at for public favour. So popular a talent speedily gained Rome, though both his father and grandfather were him the suffrage of the commons; and being sent to persons of consideration in the part of Italy in which Sicily as quæstor, at a time when the metropolis itself they resided. (Or. contra. Rull., 2, 1.) His father, was visited with a scarcity of corn, he acquitted himbeing a man of cultivated mind, determined to educate self in that delicate situation with so much success as his two sons, Marcus and Quintus, on an enlarged to supply the clamorous wants of the people without and liberal plan, and to fit them for the prospect of oppressing the province from which the provisions those public employments which his own weak state were raised. (Or. pro Planc., 26.-In Verr., 5, 14.) of health incapacitated him from seeking. Marcus, Returning thence with greater honours than had ever the elder of the two, soon displayed indications of a before been decreed to a Roman governor, he gainsuperior mind, and we are told that his schoolfellows ed for himself still farther the esteem of the Sicilcarried home such accounts of his extraordinary parts, ians, by undertaking his celebrated prosecution of Verthat their parents often visited the school for the sake res; who, though defended by the influence of the of seeing a youth who gave so much promise of future Metelli and the eloquence of Hortensius, was driven eminence. (Plut. in Vit.) One of his earliest mas- in despair into voluntary exile. Five years after his ters was the poet Archias, whom he defended after- quæstorship Cicero was elected ædile. Though posward in his consular year; and under his instruction sessed of only a moderate fortune, he nevertheless, he made such proficiency as to compose a poem, with the good sense and taste which mark his characthough yet a boy, on the fable of Glaucus, which had ter, was enabled, while holding this expensive office, formed the subject of one of the tragedies of Eschylus. to preserve in his domestic arrangements the dignity Soon after he assumed the manly gown, he was placed of a literary and public man, without any of the osunder the care of Scævola, the celebrated lawyer, tentation of magnificence which often distinguished the whom he introduces so beautifully into several of his candidate for popular applause. (Or. pro Dom., 58.) philosophical dialogues; and in no long time he gained After the customary interval of two years, he was rea thorough knowledge of the laws and political insti- turned at the head of the list as prætor (Or. in tutions of his country. (De Clar., Or., 29.) This was Pis., 1), and now made his first appearance on the about the time of the Social War; and, according to rostra in support of the Manilian law. About the the Roman custom, which made it a necessary part same time, also, he defended Cluentius. At the expiof education to learn the military art by actual service, ration of his prætorship, he refused to accept a foreign Cicero took the opportunity of serving a campaign province, the usual reward of that magistracy; but, under the consul Pompeius Strabo, father of Pompey having the consulship full in view, and relying on his the Great. Returning to pursuits more congenial to interest with Cæsar and Pompey, he allowed nothing his natural taste, he commenced the study of philoso- to divert him from that career of glory for which he phy under Philo the Academic. But his chief atten- now believed himself to be destined. Having suction was reserved for oratory, to which he applied him- ceeded at length in attaining to the high office of self with the assistance of Molo, the first rhetorician which he was in quest, he signalized his consulship of the day; while Diodotus, the Stoic, exercised him by crushing the conspiracy of Catiline; and the Roin the argumentative subtleties for which the disciples mans hailed him, on the discovery and overthrow of of Zeno were so celebrated. At the same time he this nefarious plot, as the Father and Deliverer of his declaimed daily in Greek and Latin with some young country. His consulate was succeeded by the return noblemen, who were competitors in the same race of of Pompey from the East, and the establishment of honours with himself.-Cicero was the first Roman the First Triumvirate; which, disappointing his hopes who found his way to the highest dignities of the state of political greatness, induced him to resume his fowith no other recommendation than his powers of elo-rensic and literary occupations. From these he was quence and his merits as a civil magistrate. (Or. in Cat., 3, 6.—In Pis., 3.— Pro Sull., 30.-Pro Dom., 37.-De Harusp. Resp., 23.-Ep. ad Fam., 15, 4.) The first cause of importance which he undertook was the defence of Roscius Amerinus, in which he distinguished himself by his courageous defence of his client, who had been accused of parricide by Chrysogonus, a favourite of Sylla's. This obliging him, however, according to Plutarch, to leave Rome from prudential motives, the power of Sylla being at that time paramount, he employed his time in travelling for called off, after an interval of four years, by the threatening measures of Clodius, who at length succeeded in driving him into exile. This event, which, considering the circumstances connected with it, was one of the most glorious of his life, filled him with the ut most distress and despondency. Its history is as follows. Clodius, Cicero's bitter enemy, had caused a law to be renewed, declaring every one guilty of treason who ordered the execution of a Roman citizen before the people had condemned him. The blow was aimed against Cicero, on account of the punish ment he had caused to be inflicted, by the authority | After the battle of Pharsalia and the flight of Pompey, of the senate, upon the accomplices of Catiline. The he refused to take the command of some troops then illustrious ex-consul put on mourning, and appeared under the orders of Cato, but returned to Italy, which in public, accompanied by the equites and many young was governed by Antony, the representative of Cæsar. patricians, demanding the protection of the people. His return was attended with several unpleasant cirClodius, however, at the head of his armed adherents, cumstances, until the conqueror wrote to him, and soon insulted them repeatedly, and ventured even to be- after received him in the most friendly spirit. Cicero siege the senate house. Cicero, upon this, went into now devoted himself entirely to literature and philosovoluntary exile. His conduct, however, in this re- phy. The state of his private affairs, however, involvverse of fortune, showed anything but the firmness of ed him in great embarrassment. A large sum, which a man of true spirit. He wandered about Greece, be- he had advanced to Pompey, had impoverished him, and wailing his miserable condition, refusing the consola- he was forced to stand indebted to Atticus for present tions which his friends attempted to administer, and assistance. These difficulties led him to a step which shunning the public honours with which the Greek it has been customary to regard with great severity; cities were eager to load him. (Ep. ad Att., lib. 3. the divorce of his wife Terentia, though he was then -Ep. ad Fam., lib. 14.-Or. pro Sext., 22.-Pro in his 62d year, and his marriage with his rich ward Dom., 36.) He ultimately took refuge in Thessa- Publilia, who was of an age disproportionate to his lonica with Plancus. Clodius, in the mean time, pro- own. Yet, in reviewing this proceeding, we must cured new decrees, in consequence of which Cicero's not adopt the modern standard of propriety, forgetful country seats were torn down, and a temple of Free- of the character of an age which reconciled actions dom built on the site of his house at Rome. His wife even of moral turpitude with a reputation for honour and children were also exposed to ill usage from his and virtue. Terentia was a woman of a most imperiimbittered persecutors. A favourable change, how- ous and violent temper, and (what is more to the ever, soon took place in the minds of his countrymen. purpose) had in no slight degree contributed to his The audacity of Clodius became insupportable to all present embarrassment by her extravagance in the Pompey encouraged Cicero's friends to get him re- management of his private affairs. By her he had called to Rome, and the senate also declared that it two children, a son born the year before his conwould not attend to any business until the decree sulship, and a daughter, whose loss he was now fated which ordered his banishment was revoked. Through to experience. To Tullia he was tenderly attached, the zeal of the consul Lentulus, and at the proposition not only from the excellence of her disposition, but of several tribunes, the decree of recall passed the as- from her love of polite literature; and her death tore sembly of the people in the following year, in spite from him, as he so pathetically laments to Sulpicius, of a bloody tumult, in which Cicero's brother Quintus the only comfort which the course of public events was dangerously wounded; and the orator returned had left him. (Ep. ad Fam., 4, 14.) His distress to his native country, after an absence of ten months, was increased by the unfeeling conduct of Publilia, and was received with every mark of honour. The whom he soon divorced for testifying joy at the death senate met him at the city gates, and his entry re- of her step-daughter. It was on this occasion that he sembled a triumph. The attacks of Clodius, though wrote his treatise "On Consolation," with a view to they could now do no harm, were immediately re- mitigate the anguish of his sufferings. His friends newed, until Cicero was freed from the insults of this were assiduous in their attentions; and Cæsar, who turbulent demagogue by the hand of Milo, whom he had treated him with the utmost kindness on his reafterward, in a public trial for the deed, unsuccess- turn from Egypt, signified the respect he bore his charfully defended. (Vid. Milo.) Five years after his acter by sending a letter of condolence from Spain, return from exile he received the government of Cili- where the remains of the Pompeian party still encia, in consequence of Pompey's law, which obliged gaged him. But no attentions, however considerate, those senators of consular or prætorian rank who had could soften Cicero's vexation at seeing the country never held any foreign command, to divide the vacant he had formerly saved by his exertions, now subjected provinces among them. Cicero conducted a war, to the tyranny of one master. His speeches, indeed, while in this office, with good success against the for Marcellus and Ligarius exhibit traces of inconsistplundering tribes of the mountain districts of Cilicia, ency; but for the most part he retired from public and was greeted by his soldiers with the title of Im- business, and gave himself up to the composition of perator. He resigned his command, and returned to those works which, while they mitigated his political Italy, about the close of the year 703, intending to sorrows, have secured his literary celebrity. The asprefer his claim to a triumph; but the troubles which sassination of Cæsar, which took place in the followwere just then commencing between Cæsar and Pom-ing year, once more brought him on the stage of pubpey prevented him from obtaining one. His return lic affairs. He hoped to regain great political influhome was followed by earnest endeavours to recon- ence but Antony took Caesar's place, and all that cile Pompey with Cæsar, and by very spirited beha- was left Cicero to do was to compose those admiraviour when Cæsar required his presence in the senate. ble orations against him which are known by the name But this independent temper was only transient; and of Philippics, and are equally distinguished for eloat no period of his public life did he display such mis- quence and patriotism. His enmity towards Antony erable vacillation as at the opening of the civil war. induced him to favour the young Octavius, although His conduct, in this respect, had been faulty enough the pretended moderation of the latter by no means before, for he then vacillated between the several deceived him. With him originated all the enermembers of the first triumvirate, defending Vatinius getic resolutions of the senate in favour of the war in order to please Cæsar, and his bitter political en- which the consuls and the young Cæsar were conemy Gabinius to ingratiate himself with Pompey. ducting against Antony in the name of the republic; Now, however, we find him first accepting a com- and for a time the prospect seemed to brighten. At mission from the republic; then courting Cæsar; next, last, however, Octavius having possessed himself of on Pompey's sailing for Greece, resolving to follow the consulship, and having formed an alliance with him thither; presently determining to stand neuter; Antony and Lepidus, Cicero became convinced that then bent on retiring to the Pompeians in Sicily; and liberty was at an end. At Tusculum, whither he had when, after all, he had joined their camp in Greece, retired with his brother and nephew, he learned that discovering such timidity and discontent as to draw Octavius had basely deserted him, and that his name, from Pompey the bitter reproof, "cupio ad hostes Ci- at Antony's demand, had been added to the list of the cero transeat, ut nos timeat." (Macrobius, Sat., 2, 3.) proscribed. He repaired, in a state of indecision, to yet meanly panegyrizing the government of a usurper. His foresight, sagacity, practical good sense, and singu lar tact in directing men's measures, were lost for want of that strength of mind which points them steadily to one object. He was never decided, never (as has sometimes been observed) took an important step without afterward repenting of it. Nor can we account for the firmness and resolution of his consulate, unless we discriminate between the ease of resisting a party and that of balancing contending interests. Boldness in opposition differs widely from steadiness in mediation; the latter implying a coolness of judgment, which a direct attack is so far from requiring, that it ever inspires minds naturally timid with unusual excitement.-Let us now pass to Cicero as a public speaker and writer. The orations he is known to have composed amount in all to about eighty, of which fifty-nine, either entire or in part, are pre the seacoast, and embarked. Contrary winds, however, drove him back to the shore. At the request of his slaves he embarked a second time, but soon returned again to await his fate at his country-seat near Foriniæ. "I will die," said he, "in that country which I have so often saved." Here, then, he was disposed to remain, and to meet his death; but his slaves, who were warmly attached to him, could not bear to see him thus sacrificed; and when the party of soldiers sent to murder him was advancing towards the villa, they almost forced him to put himself into his litter, and to allow them to carry him once more on board of the vessel, which was still lying at Caieta. But, as they were bearing the litter towards the sea, they were overtaken in the walks of his own grounds by the soldiers who were in search of him, and who were headed by one Herennius, a centurion, and by C. Popilius Lænas. Popilius was a native of Picenum, and had, on a former occasion, been success-served. All those pronounced by him during the five fully defended by Cicero, when brought to trial for years intervening between his election to the quæstorsome offence before the courts at Rome. As the as- ship and ædileship have perished, except that for M. sistance of advocates was given gratuitously, the con- Tullius, the exordium and narratio of which were nexion between them and their clients was esteemed brought to light by the discoveries of Maio, in the Amvery differently from what it is among us; and it was brosian library at Milan. From the same quarter therefore an instance of peculiar atrocity, that Popil- have been obtained many other reliques of the eloius offered his services to Antony to murder his pa- quence of Cicero, among the most important of which tron, from no other motive than the hope of gaining are, a large fragment of the oration for Scaurus, and his favour, by showing such readiness to destroy his detached portions of that delivered against Clodius for greatest enemy. The slaves of Cicero, undismayed his profanation of the mysteries of the Bona Dea. Of at the appearance of the soldiers, prepared to defend all the lost orations, the two most regretted are, that in their master; but he refused to allow any blood to be defence of Cornelius, and the speech delivered by him shed on his account, and commanded them to set down in the temple of Bellona, in quelling the disturbance the litter and await the issue in silence. He was excited by the law of Otho. This last is said to have obeyed; and when the soldiers came up, he stretched been one of the most signal victories of eloquence out his head with perfect calmness, and submitted his over the turbulence of human passions, while to the neck to the sword of Popilius. He died in his sixty- former Cicero himself frequently alludes as among fourth year, B.C. 43. When the murder was accom- the most finished of his compositions. The oration plished, the soldiers cut off his two hands also, as the for Marcellus is maintained by many to be a spurious instruments with which he had written his Philippic performance. It would seem, however, after weighOrations; and the head and hands were carried to ing all the arguments adduced by modern critics, that Rome, and exposed together at the Rostra. Men a part is actually genuine, but that much has been crowded to see the mournful sight, and testified by subsequently interpolated by some rhetorician or detheir tears the compassion and affection which his un- claimer. Of the rhetorical works of Cicero, the most worthy death, and his pure and amiable character, had admired and finished is the dialogue De Oratore, of so justly deserved. On the whole, antiquity may be which Cicero himself highly approved, and which his challenged to produce an individual so virtuous, so friends were accustomed to regard as one of the happerfectly amiable as Cicero. None interest more in piest of his productions. In the Oratoria Partitiones, their lives, none excite more painful emotions in their the subject is the art of arranging and distributing the deaths. Others, it is true, may be found of loftier parts of an oration so as to adapt them in the best and more heroic character, who awe and subdue the manner to their proper end, that of moving and permind by the grandeur of their views or the intensity suading an audience. In the dialogue on famous oraof their exertions. But Cicero engages our affections tors, entitled Brutus, he gives a short character of all by the integrity of his public conduct, the purity of who had ever flourished in Greece or Rome, with any his private life, the generosity, placability, and kind- considerable reputation for eloquence, down to his ness of his heart, the playfulness of his temper, the own time. It was intended as a fourth and supplewarmth of his domestic attachments. In this respect mental book to the treatise De Oratore. The Orahis letters are invaluable. Here we see the man tor, addressed to Brutus, and written at his solicitawithout disguise or affectation, especially in his letters tion, was intended to complete the two works just to Atticus, to whom he unbosomed every thought, and mentioned. It enlarges on the favourite topic of Citalked with the same frankness as to himself. It cero, which had already been partially discussed in must, however, be confessed, that the publication of the treatise De Oratore, the character of the perthis same correspondence has laid open the defects of fect orator, and seeks to confirm his favourite prophis political character. Everything seemed to point osition, that perfection in oratory requires an extensive out Cicero as the fittest person of the day to be a acquaintance with every art. It is on the merits of mediator beween contending factions. And yet, after this work in particular that Cicero, in a letter to a the eventful period of his consulship, we see him re- friend, asserts his perfect willingness that his reputation signing the high station in the republic which he him- should be staked. The Topica are a compend of the self might have filled, to the younger Cato, who, with Topica of Aristotle. The treatise De optimo genere only half his abilities, little foresight, and no address, Oratorum was originally intended as a preface to a possessed that first requisite for a statesman, firmness. translation of the celebrated orations of Demosthenes Cicero, on the contrary, was irresolute, timid, and in- and Eschines De Corona. The work De Inventione consistent. (Montesquieu, Grand. des Rom., c. 12.) was a youthful performance, and that addressed to He talked, indeed, largely of preserving a middle course Herennius, according to the best authorities, never (Ep. ad Att., 1, 19), but he was continually vacilla-proceeded from his pen. In all Cicero's rhetorical ting from one to the other extreme; always too confi- works, except, perhaps, the Orator, he professes to dent or too dejected; incorrigibly vain of success, have digested the principles of the Aristotelic and Iso its separate words, to be perspicuous it must be full. cratean schools into one finished system, selecting what was best in each, and, as occasion might offer, adding remarks and precepts of his own. The subject is considered in three distinct lights, with reference to the case, the speaker, and the speech. The case, as respects its nature, is definite or indefinite; with reference to the hearer, it is judicial, deliberative, or descriptive; as regards the opponent, the division is fourfold; according as the fact, its nature, its quality, or its propriety is called in question. The art of the speaker is directed to five points; the discovery of persuasives (whether ethical, pathetic, or argumentative), arrangement, diction, memory, delivery. And the speech itself consists of six parts; introduction (or exordium), statement of the case, division of the subject, proof, refutation, and conclusion or peroration. Cicero's laudatory orations are among his happiest efforts. Nothing can exceed the taste and beauty of those for the Manilian Law, for Marcellus, for Ligarius, for Archias, and the ninth Philippic, which is princi-ison be not thought fanciful, he may be assimilated to pally in praise of Servius Sulpicius. But it is in ju a skilful landscape-gardener, who gives depth and richdicial eloquence, particularly on subjects of a lively ness to narrow and confined premises, by taste and vacast, as in his speeches for Cælius and Murena, and riety in the disposition of his trees and walks.-We against Cæcilius, that his talents are displayed to the come next to Cicero's philosophical writings, after a best advantage. To both kinds his amiable and brief enumeration of which we will offer a few remarks pleasant turn of mind imparts inexpressible grace and on the character of his philosophy itself. The treatise delicacy; historical allusions, philosophical sentiments, De Legibus has reached us in an imperfect state, only descriptions full of life and nature, and polite raillery, three books remaining, and these disfigured by numersucceed each other in the most agreeable manner, ous chasms that cannot be supplied. It traces the without appearance of artifice or effort. Of this nature philosophic principles of jurisprudence to their remotest are his pictures of the confusion of the Catilinarian sources, sets forth a body of laws conformable to Ciconspirators on detection (Or. in Cat., 3, 3); of the cero's idea of a well-regulated state, and is supposed death of Metellus (Or. pro Cal., 10); of Sulpicius to have treated in the books that are lost of the execundertaking the embassy to Antony (Philipp., 9, 3); utive power of the magistrates and the rights of Rothe character he draws of Catiline (Or. pro Cal., 6); man citizens. The treatise De Finibus Bonorum et and his fine sketch of old Appius frowning on his de- Malorum is written after the manner of Aristotle, and generate descendant Clodia (ib., 6). But, by the in- discusses the chief good and ill of man; in it Cicero vention of a style which adapts itself with singular fe- explains the several opinions entertained on this sublicity to every class of subjects, whether lofty or famil-ject by the sages of antiquity. The Academica Quæsiar, philosophical or forensic, Cicero answers more ex- tiones relate to the Academic Philosophy, whose tenactly to his own definition of a perfect orator (Orat., ets Cicero himself had embraced. It is an account 29), than by his plausibility, pathos, and vivacity. and defence of the doctrines of the Academy. In the Among many excellences possessed by Cicero's ora- Tusculana Disputationes, five books are devoted to torical diction, the greatest is its suitableness to the as many different questions of philosophy, bearing the genius of the Latin tongue; though the diffuseness most strongly on the practice of life, and involving thence necessarily resulting has exposed it both in topics the most essential to human happiness. The his own days, and since his time, to the criticisms of Paradoxa contain a defence of six paradoxes of the those, who have affected to condemn its Asiatic char- Stoics. The work De Natura Deorum embraces a acter, in comparison with the simplicity of Attic wri- full examination of the various theories of heathen anters, and the strength of Demosthenes. Greek, how- tiquity on the nature of the gods, to which the treatise ever, is celebrated for copiousness in its vocabulary De Divinatione may be regarded as a supplement. and perspicuity in its phrases, and the consequent fa- The essay De Officiis, on moral duties, has not uncility of expressing the most novel or abstruse ideas aptly been styled the heathen Whole Duty of Man ; with precision and elegance. Hence the Attic style nor have the dialogues De Senectute and De Amicitia of eloquence was plain and simple, because simplicity been incorrectly regarded as among the most highly and plainness were not incompatible with clearness, finished and pleasing performances of which any lanenergy, and harmony. But it was a singular want of guage can boast. We have to lament the loss of the judgment, an ignorance of the very principles of com- treatises De Consolatione (that which we have under position, which induced Brutus, Calvus, Sallust, and this title being a patched-up imposture of Sigonius), De others, to imitate this terse and severe beauty in their Gloria, and the one entitled Hortensius, in which last own defective language, and even to pronounce the Cicero undertook the defence of learning and philosoopposite kind of diction deficient in taste and purity. phy, and left to his illustrious competitor the task of In Greek, indeed, the words fall, as it were, naturally arraigning them. It was this book which first led St. into a distinct and harmonious order; and, from the Augustin to the study of Christian philosophy and the exuberant richness of the materials, less is left to the doctrines of Christianity. The treatise De Republica ingenuity of the artist. But the Latin language is has been in part rescued from the destroying hand comparatively weak, scanty, and unmusical, and re- of time by the labours of Maio. Except the works on quires considerable skill and management to render it Invention and De Oratore, this was the earliest of expressive and graceful. Simplicity in Latin is Cicero's literary productions. It was given to the scarcely separable from baldness; and justly as Ter-world A.U.C. 700, just before its author set out for ence is celebrated for chaste and unadorned diction, yet even he, compared with Attic writers, is flat and heavy. (Quintil., 10, 1.) Again, the perfection of strength is clearness united to brevity, but to this combination Latin is utterly unequal. From the vagueness and uncertainty of meaning which characterize his proconsular government in Cilicia. He was then in his fifty-third year. The object and spirit of the work were highly patriotic. He wished to bring the constitution back to its first principles by an impression expositive of its theory; to inflame his contemporaries with the love of virtue, by portraying the character |