cus, who, according to one version of the fable, became enamoured of Hercules, and showed the hero where her brother had concealed his oxen. For this she was deified. She had a chapel (sacellum) at Rome, with a sacred fire continually burning in it, and vestal virgins to perform her rites. (Lactant., 1, 20, p. 110, ed. Gall.-Serv. ad Virg., En., 8, 190.)

ferent genealogy given by Pherecydes. (Schol. ad Apoll. R., 3, 1179.) After the death of his mother, Cadmus went to Delphi, to inquire of the oracle respecting Europa. The god desired him to cease from troubling himself about her, but to follow a cow as his guide, and to build a city where she should lie down. On leaving the temple, he went through Phocis, and CACUS, a famous robber, son of Vulcan, represented meeting a cow belonging to the herds of Pelagon, he in fable as of gigantic size, and vomiting forth smoke followed her. She went through Boeotia till she came and fire. He inhabited the gloomy recesses of the to where Thebes afterward stood, and there lay down. forest on Mount Aventine, and a deep cave there was Wishing to sacrifice her to Minerva, Cadmus sent his his dwelling-place, the entrance to which was hung companions to fetch water from the fountain of Mars, around with human heads and limbs. He plundered but the fount was guarded by a serpent, who killed and kept in continual alarm the neighbouring country; the greater part of them. Cadmus then engaged and and, when Hercules returned from the conquest of destroyed the serpent. By the direction of Minerva he Geryon, he stole some of his cows, and dragged them sowed its teeth, and immediately a crop of armed men backward into his cave to prevent discovery. Her- sprang up, who slew each other, either quarrelling or cules, after having enjoyed the hospitality of Evander, through ignorance; for it is said that when Cadmus was preparing to depart, without being aware of the saw them rising he flung stones at them; and they, theft; but his oxen, having lowed, were answered by thinking it was done by some of themselves, fell upon the cows in the cave of Cacus, and the hero thus be- and slew each other. Five only survived, Echion came acquainted with the loss he had sustained. He (Viper), Udæus (Groundly), Chthonius (Earthly), Hyran to the place, attacked Cacus, and strangled him in perenor (Mighty), and Pelor (Huge). These were his arms, though vomiting fire and smoke. Hercules called the Sown (orúρTоt); and they joined with Caderected an altar to Jupiter, in commemoration of his mus to build the city. For killing the sacred serpent victory; and an annual festival was instituted by the Cadmus was obliged to spend a year in servitude to inhabitants in honour of the hero who had delivered Mars. At the expiration of that period, Minerva herthem from such a pest. (Ovid, Fast., 1, 551.-Virg., self prepared for him a palace, and Jupiter gave him En., 8, 194.-Propert., 4, 10.—Juv., 5, 125.—Liv., Harmonia, the daughter of Mars and Venus, in mar1, 7.—Dionys. Hal., 1, 9.) The allegorical charac-riage. All the gods, quitting Olympus, celebrated the ter of the fable here related is sufficiently indicated nuptials in the Cadmea, the palace of Cadmus. The by the names of the parties. Thus Evander, who re-bridegroom presented his bride with a magnificent ceived Hercules on his return from the conquest of Geryon, and Cacus (in Greek Evavdρos and Kakóç), seem to be nothing more than appellations intended to characterize the individuals to whom they are applied Evander, therefore, the leader of the Pelasgi, the head and chief of the division of that great sacerdotal caste which passed into Italy, and, consequently, to apply a modern term, the high-priest of the order, is the Good Man (evavdpoç), and Cacus, his opponent, is the Bad Man (kakóç). Hercules destroys Cacus, that is, the solar worship, or some other Oriental system of belief professed by the Pelasgi, was made to supplant some rude and probably cruel form of worship; and as Evander was high-priest of the one, so Cacus, whoever he was, may be regarded as the head of the other. (Compare Ritter, Vorhalle, p. 343, seqq.) CACUTHIS, a river in India; according to Mannert, the Gumly, which falls into the Ganges, to the north of Benares. (Geogr., vol. 5, pt. 1, p. 93.)

CADMEA, the citadel of Thebes, fabled to have been built by Cadmus. It represents very evidently the early city, built upon a height, around which the later city of Thebes was subsequently erected, and then the former answered for a citadel, as in the case of the Acropolis of Athens. Of the walls of the Cadmea, a few fragments remain, which are regularly constructed. These were probably erected by the Athenians, when Cassander restored the city of Thebes. (Dodwell's Travels, vol. 1, p. 264.)

CADMEIS, an ancient name of Boeotia.

robe, and a collar, the work of Vulcan, given to him, it is said, by the divine artist himself. Harmonia became the mother of four daughters, Semele, Autonoë, Ino, and Agave, and one son, Polydorus. After the various misfortunes which befell their children, Cadmus and his wife quitted Thebes, now grown odious to them, and migrated to the country of the Enchelians; who, being harassed by the incursions of the Illyrians, were told by the oracle that, if they made Cadmus and Harmonia their leaders, they should be successful. They obeyed the god, and his prediction was verified. Cadmus became king of the Illyrians, and had a son named Illyrius. Shortly afterward he and Harmonia were changed into serpents, and sent by Jupiter to the Elysian plain, or, as others said, were conveyed thither in a chariot drawn by serpents. (Apollod., 3, 4.— Apoll. R., 4, 517.-Oord, Met., 4, 563, seqq.-Nonnus, 44, 115.)-The myth of Cadmus is, by its relation to history, one of considerable importance. It is usually regarded as offering a convincing proof of the fact of colonies from the East having come to Greece, and having introduced civilization and the arts. An examination, however, of the legend, in this point of view, will hardly warrant such an opinion. In the Iliad, though the Cadmeans are spoken of more than once, not the slightest allusion is made to Cadmus. In the Odyssey, the sea-goddess Ino-Leucothia is said to have been a mortal, and daughter to Cadmus. (Od., 5, 333.) Hesiod says that the goddess Harmonia was married to Cadmus in Thebes. (Theog., 937, 975.) Pindar frequently speaks of Cadmus; he places him with the Gre cian heroes, Peleus and Achilles, in the island of the

CADMUS, I. son of Agenor, king of Phoenicia, by Telephassa, was sent by his father, along with his brothers Phoenix and Cilix, in quest of their sister Eu-blessed (Ol., 2, 142); but it is very remarkable that this ropa, who had been carried off by Jupiter, and they Theban poet never hints even at his Phoenician origin. were ordered not to return until they had found her. It was an article, however, of general belief in Pindar's The brothers were accompanied by their mother, and time. There is a curious coincidence between the by Thasus, a son of Neptune. Their search was to name Cadmus and the Semitic term for the east, Keno purpose: they could get no intelligence of their dem, and this may in reality be the sole foundation for sister; and, fearing the indignation of their father, the notion of a Phoenician colony at Thebes; for none they resolved to settle in various countries. Phoenix of the usual evidences of colonization are to be found. thereupon established himself in Phoenicia, Cilix in | We do not, for example, meet with the slightest trace Cilicia, and Cadmus and his mother went to Thrace, of Phoenician influence in the language, manners, where Thasus founded a town also named after him- or institutions of Boeotia. It is farther a thing most self. (Apollod., 3, 1, 1.)—Compare the somewhat dif- | incredible, that a seafaring, commercial people like the

alds regarded as the symbol of peace. (Consult Böttiger, Amalthea, vol. 1, p. 104, seqq.)

Phœnicians should have selected, as the site of their the caduceus was of Phoenician origin, and what were very earliest foreign settlement, a place situated in a the serpents in latter days consisted originally of rich fertile valley, away from the sea, and only adapted nothing more than a mere knot, skilfully formed, and for agriculture, without mines, or any of those objects used to secure the chests and wares of the Phoenician of trade which might tempt a people of that character. traders. This knot became very probably attached, in It is also strange, that the descendants of these colo- the course of time, to a bough adorned with green mists should have so entirely put off the Phoenician leaves at the end, and the whole thus formed a symcharacter, as to become noted in after ages for their bol of traffic. Here we see also the origin of the dislike of trade of any kind. We may, therefore, now wings. The caduceus served Mercury also as a herventure to dismiss this theory, and seek a Grecian ald's staff, and hence its Greek name KηpúkεLOV, origin for Cadmus. (Müller, Orchomenus, p. 113, whence, as some think, the Latin caduceus is corseq.)-Homer and Hesiod call the people of Thebes rupted. The term caduceus was also applied someCadmeans or Cadmeonians, and the country the Cad-times to the white wand or rod, which the ancient hermean land; the citadel was at all times named the Cadmea. Cadmus is therefore apparently (like Pelasgus, Dorus, Ion, Thessalus, and so many others) mere- CADURCI, a people of Gallia Celtica, living between ly a personification of the name of the people. Again, the Oldus or Òltis (the Olt) and the Duranius (DorCadmilos or Cadmus was a name of Mercury in the dogne), two of the northern branches of the Garumna. mysteries of Samothrace, which were instituted by the Their capital was Divona, afterward called from their Tyrrhenian Pelasgi, who, at the time of the Dorian own name Cadurci, now Cahors. (Cas., B. G., 7, 4.) migration, being driven from Boeotia, settled on the CADYTIS, a town of Syria, mentioned by Herodotus islands in the north of the Ægean. The name Cad-(2, 159). It is supposed by Reland to have been the mus, moreover, occurs only at Thebes and Samo- same with Gath. D'Anville, Rennell, and many thrace; Harmonia also was an object of worship in this others, however, identify it with Jerusalem. This last place, and the Cabiri were likewise worshipped at latter opinion is undoubtedly the more correct one, Thebes. Now, as the word Kúduos may be deduced and the name Cadytis would seem to be only a corfrom Kálo," to adorn" or "order," and answers exactly ruption of the Hebrew Kedosha, i. e., “holy city." to Kóspor, the name of the chief magistrate in Crete, With this, too, the present Arabic name El Kads, i. e., it has been inferred, that Cadmus-Hermes, i. e., Her-"the holy," clearly agrees. (Rennell, Geogr. Herod., mes, the Regulator or Disposer, a cosmogonic power, vol. 1, p. 324.-Rosenmüller, Bibl. Alterthumsk, vol. gave name to a portion of the Pelasgic race, and that, 2, pt. 1, p. 487.-Heeren, Ideen, vol. 1, pt. 2, p. 114. in the usual manner, the god was made a mortal king.-Dahlman, Herod., p. 75.-Valckenær, Opusc., vol. (Müller, Orchomenus, p. 461, seqq.-Id., Prolegom., | 1, p. 152, seqq.-Bähr, Excurs., 11, ad Herod., l. c.) p. 146, seqq.-Keightley's Mythology, p. 325, seqq.) CA, an island of the Egean Sea, among the Cyc-The ancient tradition was, that Cadmus brought six-lades, called also Ceos and Cea. (Vid. Ceos.) teen letters from Phoenicia to Greece, to which Palamedes added subsequently four more, v, 5, 4, X, and Simonides, at a still later period, four others, 5, 7, 4, w. The traditional alphabet of Cadmus is supposed to have been the following: A, B, T, A, E, F, I, K, A, M, N, O, II, P, Σ, T, and the names were, 'Aλøa, Вñтα, Γάμμα, Δέλτα, Εἰ, Γαῦ, Ἰῶτα, Κάππα, Λάμβδα, Μϋ, Nữ, Ov, IIi, 'Pů, Ziyua, Tav. The explanation which has just been given to the myth of Cadmus, and its connexion with the Pelasgi, has an important bearing on the question relative to the existence of an early Pelasgic alphabet in Greece, some remarks on which will be found under the article Pelasgi.-II. A native of Miletus, who flourished about 520 B.C. Pliny (7, 56) calls him the most ancient of the logographi. In another passage (5, 29), he makes him to have been the first prose writer, though elsewhere he attributes this to Pherecydes. According to a remark of Isocrates (in his discourse Tepì avridóoews), Cadmus was the first that bore the title of ooporns, by which appellation was then meant an eloquent man. He wrote on the antiquities of his native city. His work was abridged by Bion of Proconnesus. (Schöll, Hist. Lit. Gr., vol. 2, p. 134.)

CACIAS, a wind blowing from the northeast. (Compare Aulus Gellius, 2, 22, and Schneider, Lex., s. v. Kaiklas.)

CECILIA CAIA, or TANAQUIL. Vid. Tanaquil. CECILIA LEX, I. was proposed A.U.C. 693, by Cæcilius Metellus Nepos, to exempt the city and Italy from taxes. (Cic., Ep. ad Att., 2, 9.—Dio Cass., 37, 51.)-II. Another, called also Didia, or Didia et Cæcilia, A.U.C. 654, by the consuls Q. Cæcilius Metellus and T. Didius, that laws should be promulgated for three market-days (17 days), and that several distinct things should not be included in the same law, which practice was called ferre per saturam.—III. Another, A.U.C. 701, to restore to the censors their original rights and privileges, which had been lessened by P. Clodius, the tribune.-IV. Another, called also Gabinia, A.U.C. 685, against usury.

CECILIA (GENS), a distinguished plebeian family of Rome, the principal branch of which were the Metelli. They pretended to have derived their origin from Cæculus, son of Vulcan.

tius Sedigitus, ap. Aul. Gell., 15, 24.) He died one year after Ennius. We possess the names and fragments of more than thirty of his comedies, in which he appears to have copied the writers of the New Comedy among the Greeks, especially Menander. (Bähr, Gesch. Rom. Lit., p. 70.)

CECILIUS, I. Metellus. (Vid. Metellus.)-II. Statius, a comic poet, originally a Gallic slave. (Aul. Gell., 4, 20.) His productions were held in high esCADUCEUS, the wand of the god Mercury, with timation by the Romans, and were sometimes ranked which he conducts the souls of the departed to the on an equality with those of Plautus and Terence, at lower world. In the case of the god it is of gold, hence other times preferred to them. (Horat., Ep., 2, 1, 59. called by the poets aurea virga, and was said to have-Cic., de Orat., 2, 10.-Id. ad Attic., 7, 3.-Vulgabeen given him by Apollo in exchange for the lyre, which the former had invented. Commonly speaking, however, it was a wand of laurel or olive, with two little wings on the upper end, and with two serpents entwined about this same part, having their heads turned towards each other, the whole serving as a symbol peace. According to the fable, Mercury, when travelling in Arcadia, saw two serpents fighting with one another, and threw the rod of peace between them, whereupon they instantly ceased from the contest, and wound themselves around the staff in friendly and lasting union. Böttiger, however, gives a much more rational explanation. According to this writer,

of

CECINA, ALLIENUS, a celebrated general, a native of Gaul. He commanded at first a legion for Galba, in Germany; then he embraced the party of Vitellius, and gained him the crown by the victory of Bedriacum, where Otho was defeated. Soon after this, however, he abandoned Vitellius and went over to Vespasian. Irritated at not being promoted by the new em

CELES VIBENNA. CELIA LEX, was enacted A.U.C. 630, by Cælius, a tribune. It ordained, that in judicial proceedings before the people, in cases of treason, the votes should be given by ballot; contrary to the exception of the Cassian law. (Heinecc., Antiq. Rom., ed. Haubold, p. 250.)

CELIUS, I. a young Roman of considerable talents and accomplishments, intrusted to the care of Cicero on his first introduction to the forum. Having imprudently engaged in an intrigue with Clodia, the well-known sister of Clodius, and having afterward deserted her, she accused him of an attempt to poison her, and of having borrowed money from her in order to procure the assassination of Dio, the Alexandrean ambassador. He was defended by Cicero in an oration which is still extant.-II. Aurelianus, a medical writer. (Vid. Aurelianus.)-III. Sabinus, a writer in the age of Vespasian, who composed a treatise on the edicts of the curule ediles.-IV. One of the seven hills on which Rome was built. Romulus surrounded it with a ditch and rampart, and it was enclosed by walls by the succeeding kings. It is supposed to have received its name from Cæles Vibenna.

CENE, or CÆNEPOLIS, I. a town of Egypt, in the Panopolitan nome, supposed to be the present Ghenné or Kenné.-II. A town near the promontory of Tænarus: its previous name was Tænarum. (Vid. Tænarus.)

CENIDES, a patronymic of Eëtion, as descended Ionia by the arms of Cyrus, formed establishments in from Cænus. (Herod., 5, 92.)

Marius. Another, of the same line, C. Julius Cæsar, the brother of Lucius, was eminent as a public speaker for his wit and pleasantry, and perished together with the former when Marius and Cinna first assumed the government.-The most illustrious of the name, however, was C. JULIUS CAESAR, born July (Quintilis) 10th, B.C. 100. His father was C. Julius Cæsar, a man of prætorian rank, and is recorded by Pliny (7, 53) as a remarkable instance of sudden death, he having expired suddenly one morning at Pisa while dressing himself. C. Cæsar married Aurelia, of the family of Aurelius Cotta, and of these parents was

jealous of their nautical skill and enterprising spirit, | casa in Punic, as Servus informs us (ad En., 1, 290). sought to dispossess them. A severe action accord- The derivation of Pliny is generally considered the best. ingly took place in the Sea of Sardinia, between the The nobility of the Julian family was so ancient and Phocæans and the combined fleet of the latter powers, so illustrious, that, even after it obtained the imperial in which the former gained the day; but it was such dignity, it needed not the exaggeration of flatterers to a victory as left them little room for exultation, they exalt it. Within thirty years after the commencement having lost several of their ships, and the rest being of the republic, we find the name of C. Julius on the nearly all disabled. The Agylleans, who appear to list of consuls, and the same person, or a relation of have constituted the principal force of the Tyrrhenians, the same name, is said to have been one of the Deon their return home landed their prisoners and barba- cemviri by whom the laws of the twelve tables were rously stoned them to death; for which act of cruelty compiled. It numbered, after this, several other indithey were soon visited by a strange calamity. It was viduals who attained to the offices of prætor and conobserved, that all the living creatures which approach-sul, one of whom, L. Julius Cæsar, distinguished himed the spot where the Phocæans had been murdered, self in the Italian war by a great victory over the were immediately seized with convulsive distortions Samnites, and was afterward murdered by order of and paralytic affections of the limbs. On consulting the oracle at Delphi, to learn how they might expiate their offence, the Agylleans were commanded to celebrate the obsequies of the dead, and to hold games in their honour; which order, the historian informs us, was punctually attended to up to his time. We learn also from Strabo (220), that the Agylleans enjoyed a great reputation for justice among the Greeks; for, though very powerful, and able to send out large fleets and numerous armies, they always abstained from piracy, to which the other Tyrrhenian cities were much addicted. According to Dionysius, the Romans were first engaged in hostilities with Cære under the reign of Tar-born the subject of the present sketch. From his earquin the Elder, and subsequently under Servius Tul- liest boyhood Cæsar discovered extraordinary talents. lius, by whom a treaty was concluded between the He had a penetrating intellect, a remarkably strong two states (3, 28). Long after, when Rome had memory, and a lively imagination; was indefatigable in been taken by the Gauls, the inhabitants of Care ren- business, and able, as we are told by Pliny, to read, dered the former city an important service, by receiv- write, hear, and dictate, at one and the same time, ing their priests and vestals, and defeating the Gauls from four to seven different letters. When the party on their return through the Sabine territory; on which of Marius had gained the ascendancy at Rome, Cinna occasion they recovered the gold with which Rome gave his daughter Cornelia in marriage to Cæsar. is said to have purchased its liberation. This is a cu- The latter was also farther connected with the popular rious fact, and not mentioned by any historian; but party through the marriage of Julia, his father's sister, it agrees very well with the account which Polybius with the elder Marius; yet, although thus doubly obgives us of the retreat of the Gauls (1, 6). In re- noxious to the victorious side, he refused to comply turn for this assistance, the Romans requited the Ca- with the commands of Sylla, to divorce his wife; and rites by declaring them the public guests of Rome, and being exposed, in consequence, to his resentment, he admitting them, though not in full, to the rights en- fled from Rome, and baffled all attempts upon his life, joyed by her citizens. They were made citizens, but partly by concealing himself, and partly by bribing without the right of voting; whence the phrases, in the officers sent to kill him, till Sylla was prevailed Caritum tabulas referre aliquem, "to deprive one of upon, according to Suetonius, to spare him at the enhis right of voting," and Carite cera digni, "worth- treaty of some common friends. A story was afterless persons," in reference to citizens of Rome, since ward common, that Sylla did not pardon without great what would be an honour to the people of Care would reluctance; and that he told those who sued in his be a punishment to a native Roman citizen. (Cra- behalf, that in Cæsar there were many Mariuses. Had mer's Ancient Italy, vol. 1, p. 207.)-"It is a weak he indeed thought so, his was not a temper to have notion of Strabo," observes Niebuhr, "that the Ro- yielded to any supplications to save him; nor would mans had acted ungratefully in not admitting the Ca- any considerations have induced him, to exempt from rites to a higher franchise. It was not in their power destruction one from whom he had apprehended so to do so, unless the Cærites themselves preferred re- great a danger. After this, the young Cæsar pronouncing the independence of their state, receiving ceeded to the court of Nicomedes, king of Bithynia, their landed property from the republic, according to and on leaving this monarch, of whose intimacy with the Roman law, and forming a new tribe; and this him a scandalous anecdote is recorded, he went to M. they were certainly far from wishing at that time, as Municius Thermus, then prætor in Asia, who intrustfortune had been more favourable to them in the Gal-ed him with the command of the fleet that was to lic war than to Rome; if, indeed, the Roman citizen-blockade Mytilene. In the execution of this trust ship were really conferred on the Carites at this time, and not considerably earlier, in the flourishing days of the ancient Agylla." (Roman History, vol. 1, p. 403, Walter's transl.) In the first edition of his work (vol. 1, p. 193, seqq., in notis), Niebuhr starts the bold hypothesis, that Cere was the parent city of Rome. In the second edition, however (Cambridge transl.), this theory is silently withdrawn.

Cæsar distinguished himself highly, although but twenty-two years of age. He next visited Rhodes, and studied eloquence for some time under Apollonius Molo, from whom Cicero, about the same period, was also receiving instruction. (Sueton., Jul., c. 4.-Cic., de Clar. Or., c. 91.) On the way thither he was taken by pirates, and was detained by them till he collected from some of the neighbouring cities fifty CESAR, a surname given to the Julian family at talents for his ransom. No sooner, however, was he Rome, for which various etymologies have been assign-released, than he procured a small naval force, and ed. Pliny (7, 9) informs us, that the first who bore the name was so called, quod caso mortua matris utero natus fuerit. Festus derives it from cæsaries, cum qua e matris ventre prodierit. Others, because the first of the name slew an elephant, which was called

set out on his own sole authority in pursuit of them. He overtook the pirates, and captured some of their vessels, which he brought back to the coast of Asia with a number of prisoners. He then sent word of his success to the proconsul of Asia, requesting him

to order the execution of the captives; but that officer and to remove him farther from the city, added to his being more inclined to have them sold as slaves, Cæsar government the province of Transalpine Gaul, and crucified them all without loss of time, before the pro- voted him another legion. After marrying Calpurnia, consul's pleasure was officially known. Such con- the daughter of Lucius Calpurnius Piso (his third wife duct was not likely to recommend him to those in au- had been divorced by him in consequence of the affair thority; and we are told that on several other occa- of Clodius), Cæsar repaired to Gaul, in nine years resions, he wished to act for himself (Vell. Paterc., 2, duced the whole country, crossed the Rhine twice, 67.-Sueton., Jul., 4), and even to take part in the passed over twice into Britain, defeated the natives of war which was now renewed with Mithradates, without this island in two battles, and compelled them to give any commission from the government, and without hostages. The senate had continued his government submitting himself to any of the regular officers of the in Gaul for another period of five years; while Pomrepublic. These early instances of his lawless spirit pey was to have the command of Spain, and Crassus are recorded with admiration by some of his historians, that of Syria, Egypt, and Macedonia, for five years also. as affording proofs of vigour and greatness of mind. The death of Crassus, however, in his unfortunate He now returned to Rome, and became, in succession, campaign against the Parthians, dissolved the triummilitary tribune, quæstor, and ædile. At the same virate. About this same time, too, occurred the death time, he had the address to win the favour of the peo- of Julia, and thus the tie which had bound Pompey so ple by affability, by splendid entertainments, and pub-closely to Cæsar was broken, and no private considerlic shows; and, trusting to his popularity, he ven- ations any longer existed to allay the jealousies and tured to erect again the statues of Marius, whose animosities which political disputes might enkindle memory was hated by the senate and patricians. In between them. The power of Pompey, meanwhile, the conspiracy of Catiline he certainly had a secret kept continually on the increase; and Cæsar, on his part; and his speech in the senate, on the question of part, used every exertion to strengthen his own retheir punishment, was regarded by many as an actual sources, and enlarge the number of his party and proof of this, for he insisted that death, by the Roman friends. Cæsar converted Gaul into a Roman provconstitution, was an illegal punishment, and that the ince, and kept governing it with policy and kindness. property merely of the conspirators should be con- Pompey, on his side, elevated Cæsar's enemies to the fiscated, and they themselves condemned to perpetual consulship, and prevailed upon the senate to pass a deimprisonment. Soon after this he was chosen pontifex cree requiring Cæsar to leave his army, and resign his maximus, and was about to go as governor to Farther government of Gaul. The latter declared his willingSpain; but his creditors refusing to let him depart, ness to obey this mandate, if Pompey also would lay Crassus became his security in the enormous sum of aside his own authority, and descend to the ranks of eight hundred and thirty talents. It was on his jour- a private citizen. The proposition was unheeded, ney to Spain that the remarkable expression fell from and a second decree followed, commanding Cæsar to his lips, on seeing a miserable village by the way, resign his offices and military power within a specified "that he would rather be first there than second at period, or be declared an enemy to his country, and at Rome." When he entered on the government of this the same time appointing Pompey commander-in-chief province, he displayed the same ability, and the same of the armies of the republic. An open rupture now unscrupulous waste of human lives for the purposes of ensued. The decree of the senate was negatived by his ambition, which distinguished his subsequent ca- two of the tribunes, Antony and Cassius (Cas., Bell. reer. In order to retrieve his fortune, to gain a mili- Civ., 1, 2, seq.); the senate, on the other hand, had tary reputation, and to entitle himself to the honour of recourse to the exercise of their highest prerogative, a triumph, he attacked some of the native tribes on the and directed the consuls for the time being "to promost frivolous pretences (Dio Cass., 37, 52), and thus vide for the safety of the republic." This resolution enriched himself and his army, and gained the credit was entered on the journals of the senate on the sevof a successful general by the plunder and massacre enth of January; and no sooner was it passed, than of these poor barbarians. On his return to Rome he Antony and Cassius, together with Curio, professing paid off his numerous and heavy debts, and, in order to believe their lives in danger, fled in disguise from to gain the consulship, brought about a reconciliation Rome, and hastened to escape to Cæsar, who was between Pompey and Crassus, whose enmity had di- then at Ravenna, waiting for the result of his proposivided Rome into two great parties. He succeeded tion to the senate. (Cic., Ep. ad Fam., 16, 11.— in his design, and that famous coalition was eventually Plut., Vit. Cæs., c. 31.) It appears, from one of Ciceformed between Pompey, Crassus, and himself, which ro's letters (ad Att., 7, 9), written a few days before is known in Roman history by the name of the First the first of January, that he had calculated on such an Triumvirate. (Vid. Triumvir.) Supported by such event as the flight of the tribunes, and on its affording powerful assistants, in addition to his own popularity, Cæsar a pretext for commencing his rebellion. When Cæsar was elected consul, with M. Calpurnius Bibu- it had actually taken place, the senate, well aware of lus, confirmed the measures of Pompey, and procured the consequences to which it would lead, began to the passage of a law for the distribution of certain make preparations for defence. Italy was divided into lands among the poorer class of citizens. This, of districts, each of which was to be under the comcourse, brought him high popularity. With Pompey mand of a separate officer; soldiers were ordered to be he formed a still more intimate connexion, by giving everywhere levied, money was voted from the treashim his daughter Julia in marriage; and the favour of ury to be placed at Pompey's disposal, and the two the equestrian order was gained by releasing them Gauls, which Cæsar had just been summoned to refrom a disadvantageous contract for the revenues of sign, were bestowed on L. Domitius and M. ConAsia, a step which the senate had refused to take in sidius Nonianus. When Cæsar was informed of the their behalf; and thus the affections of a powerful flight of the tribunes and of the subsequent resolubody of men were alienated from the aristocracy at tions of the senate, he assembled his soldiers, expathe very time when their assistance was most needful. tiated on the violence offered to the tribunitian charWhen the year of his consulship had expired, Cæsar ob-acter, and on the attempts of his enemies to despoil tained from the people, by the Vatinian law, the government of Cisalpine Gaul and Illyricum, for five years, with an army of three legions. As the law then stood, the disposal of such commands was vested in the senate alone; but that body, wishing, no doubt, to increase the weight of Caesar's employments abroad,

himself of his dignity, by forcing him to resign his province before the term of his command was expired. He found his troops perfectly disposed to follow him, crossed the Rubicon, and, seizing on Ariminum, the first town of importance without the limits of his province, thus declared himself in open rebel