VOLOGISES, a name common to many of the kings | brother of Cassander (Athen., 3, 54), and the site of of Parthia, who made war against the Roman emperors. (Vid. Parthia.)

VOLSCI, a people of Latium, along the coast below Antium. No notice appears to be taken by any Latin writer of the origin of this people. According to Cato, they occupied the country of the Aborigines (ap. Priscian., 5), and were at one time subject to the Etruscans. (Id., ap. Serv., En., 11, 567.) We learn from Titinnius, an old comic writer quoted by Festus (s. v. Oscum), that the Volsci had a peculiar idiom distinct from the Oscan and Latin dialects. They used the Latin characters, however, both in their inscriptions and on their coin. Notwithstanding the small extent of country which they occupied, reaching only from Antium to Terracina, a line of coast of about fifty miles, and little more than half that distance from the sea to the mountains, it swarmed with cities filled with a hardy race, destined, says the Roman historian, as it were by fortune, to train the Roman soldier to arms by their perpetual hostility. (Liv., 6, 21.) The Volsci were first attacked by the second Tarquin, and war was carried on afterward between the two nations, with short intervals, for upward of two hundred years (Liv., 1, 53); and though this account is no doubt greatly exaggerated by Livy, and the numbers much overrated, enough will remain to prove that this part of Italy was at that time far more populous and better cultivated than at present. (Cramer's Anc. Italy, vol. 2, p. 82.)

VOLTUMNE FANUM, a spot in Etruria where the general assembly of the Etrurians was held on solemn occasions. (Liv., 4, 23.-Id., 5, 17.) Some trace of the ancient name is preserved in that of a church called Santa Maria in Volturno. (Lanzi, vol. 2, p. 107.-Cramer's Anc. Italy, vol. 2, p. 223.)

VOLSINIUM. Vid. Vulsinii.

VOLUBILIS, a city in Mauritania Tingitana, between Tocolosida and Aqua Dacicæ, in a fruitful part of the country. It is now Walili. (Itin. Ant., 23. Mela, 3, 10.)

which is called Callitzi. (Cramer's Anc. Greece, vol. 1, p. 260.) Gail, however, maintains that no such city ever existed, and that the name was a general appellation for the whole peninsula of Athos, with its five cities. (Gail, Atlas, p. 21.)

URANUS (Oupavós, "Heaven" or "sky"), a deity, the same as Coelus, the most ancient of all the gods. He married Terra, or the Earth, by whom he had the Titans. (Vid. Titanes.)

URCINIUM, a town on the western coast of Corsica, east of the Rhium Promontorium. It was fabled to have been founded by Eurysaces, the son of Ajax, and is now Ajaccio.

URIA (Ureium or Hyreium), a town on the coast of Apulia, giving name to the Sinus Urias, or Gulf of Manfredonia. The position of this town has never been very clearly ascertained, partly from the circumstance of there being another town of the same name in Messapia, and partly from the situation assigned to it by Pliny, to the south of the promontory of Garga nus, not agreeing with the topography of Strabo. (Plin., 3, 11.- Strabo, 284.) Hence Cluverius and Cellarius were led to imagine that there were two distinct towns named Uria and Hyrium; the former situated to the south, the latter to the north of Garganus. (Ital. Antiq., vol. 2, p. 1212.- Geogr. Ant., lib. 2, c. 9.) It must be observed, however, that Dionysius Periegetes and Ptolemy (p. 62) mention only Hyrium, and therefore it is probable that the error has originated with Pliny. At any rate, we may safely place the Hyreium of Strabo at Rodi. (Cramer's Anc. Italy, vol. 2, p. 273, seqq.)

USIPETES OF USIPII, a German tribe. Driven by the Suevi from the interior of Germany, the Usipetes presented themselves on the banks of the Lower Rhine, crossed that stream, and passed through the territories of the Menapii into Gaul. Cæsar defeated them and drove them back over the Rhine, and we then find them settling to the north of the Luppia or Lippe, and reaching to the eastern mouth of the Rhine. a subsequent period they had their settlement between the Sieg and Lahn, but gradually merged into the name of Allemanni. (Mannert, Geogr., vol. 3, p. 153, 239.)

At

USTICA, a mountain and valley in the Sabine territory, near Horace's farm. (Horat., Od., 1, 17, 11.)

VOLUMNIA, the wife of Coriolanus. (Liv., 2, 40.) VOPISCUS, one of the writers of the Augustan History. He was a native of Syracuse, and contemporary with Trebellius Pollio, having flourished towards the close of the third and in the early part of the fourth century. His father and grandfather lived on terms of intimacy with the Emperor Dioclesian. In the year UTICA, a city of Africa, on the seacoast, northwest 291 or 292, the prefect of Rome, Junius Tiberianus, of Carthage, and separated from its immediate district prevailed upon Vopiscus to write a life of Aurelian, by the river Bagradas. The Greeks called the name which no Latin historian had as yet taken up. He Ityke ('Irún), probably by a corruption. Utica was supplied him with various materials from the private the earliest, or one of the earliest colonies planted by papers of that prince, and also from the Ulpian library. Tyre on the African coast, and Bochart deduces the Among the books consulted by him, Vopiscus names name from the Phoenician Atica, i. e., "ancient." some Greek works. This biography was followed by (Geogr. Sacr., 1, 24, col. 474, l. 1.) Velleius Pathe lives of Tacitus, Florian, Probus, Firmus, Satur- terculus makes it to have been founded about the time ninus, Proculus, Bonosus, Carus, Numerian, and Ca- that Codrus was king at Athens, about 1150 B.C., rinus. Flavius Vopiscus is distinguished from his consequently in the period when the Greeks were bebrethren in the Augustan collection by possessing more ginning to make their settlements along the coast of of order and method: the letters and official papers, Asia Minor (1, 2). Justin asserts that Utica was moreover, which he has inserted in his history, impart more ancient than Carthage (18, 4, 5). It was origia considerable value to the work. As to style, how-nally a free and independent city, like all the other ever, he is on a level with the other writers in the Augustan History. He states, in his life of Aurelian, his intention of writing the life of Apollonius of Tyana, a project which he never executed. His works are given in the Historia Augusta Scriptores. (Schöll, Hist. Lit. Rom., vol. 3, p. 156.)

large settlements of the Phoenicians, and had a senate and suffetes, or presiding magistrates, of its own. As Carthage, however, rose gradually into power, it assumed a kind of protection over Utica, as would appear in particular from the language of the second treaty between Rome and Carthage, where the latter URANIA, the muse of Astronomy, usually represent-state speaks not only for itself, but also for the people ed as holding in one hand a globe, in the other a rod, with which she is employed in tracing out some figure. (Vid. Musa.) By some she was said to be the mother of Hymenæus. (Catullus, 61, 2.—Nonnus, 33, 67.)

URANOPOLIS, according to most geographers, a city on the peninsula of Athos, founded by Alexander,

of Utica. (Polyb., 3, 24.) At a subsequent period we find Utica, it is true, still with a separate constitution of its own, but, in reality, more or less dependant upon the power of Carthage. Hence the disaffection frequently shown by the inhabitants to the Carthaginian cause, the ease with which Agathocles made himself master of the place, and its siding with the re

volted mercenaries after the first Punic war. (Diod. | (Il., 8, 195.) The fatal collar of Harmonia was the Sic., 20, 54.- Polyb., 1, 82, 88.) The punishment work of his hands. (Apollod., 3, 4, 3.) The brassinflicted by the Carthaginians on the people of Utica, footed, brass-throated, fire-breathing bulls of Eetes, on the quelling of this rebellion, probably drew more king of Colchis, were the gift of Hephaestus to Æetes' closely the connexion between the two cities; at least father Helius. (Apollon. Rhod., 3, 230.) He also Scipio besieged Utica in vain during the second Punic made for Alcinous, king of the Phæacians, the gold war. At the beginning of the third Punic contest, and silver dogs which guarded his house. (Od., 7, however, the inhabitants of Utica regarded it as the 91.) For himself he formed the golden maidens, who safer course to separate their interests from those of waited on him, and whom he endowed with reason Carthage. They gave themselves up, therefore, vol- and speech. (I., 18, 419.) He gave to Minos, king untarily to the power of Rome, and this latter state of Crete, the brazen man Talus, who each day com had now a firm foothold for the prosecution of all her passed his island three times to guard it from the inambitious plans in relation to Africa, (Polyb., 36, 1.) vasion of strangers. (Apollod., I, 9, 26.) The braAs some recompense to the Uticenses for the valuable zen cup, in which the Sun-god and his horses and charaid they had afforded during the war, the Romans, at iot are carried round the earth every night, was also its close, bestowed upon them a large portion of the the work of this god. The only instances we meet territory immediately adjacent to Carthage (Appian, of Hephaestus' working in any other substance than Bell. Pun., c. 135); and Utica was now, and remain- metal are in Hesiod, where, at the command of Jupied as long as Carthage continued in ruins, the first city ter, he forms Pandora of earth and water (Op. et D., of Africa in point of importance, and the seat of the 60), and where he uses gypsum and ivory in the forproconsul. And yet it never became a very flourish- mation of the shield which he makes for Hercules. ing city, since in all the civil wars of the Romans de- (Scut., Herc., 141.) That framed by him for Achilles tachments of one party or the other invariably landed in the Iliad is all of metal. In the Iliad (18, 382), near this place, and fought many of their battles here. the wife of Hephaestus is named Charis; in Hesiod Thus, it was near Utica that Pompey defeated the op- (Theog., 945), Aglaia, the youngest of the Graces; in ponents of Sylla (Orosius, 5, 21); here, too, Curio the interpolated tale in the Odyssey (8, 266, seqq.), contended for Cæsar, and, not long after, Cæsar's op- Aphrodite, the goddess of beauty.-The favourite haunt ponents selected Utica as the chief seat of the war. of Hephaestus on earth was the isle of Lemnos. It The issue was an unfortunate one for the republican was here that he fell when flung from Heaven by Jupiparty, and Cato (hence called Uticensis) found here a ter for attempting to aid his mother Juno, whom Judeath by his own hand. Hitherto Utica had remained piter had suspended in the air with anvils fastened to a free city, with its old constitution; and hence Hir- her feet. As knowledge of the earth increased, Ætna tius speaks of its senate. (Auct., Bell. Afr., c. 87, and all other places where there was subterranean fire 90.) Augustus declared the place a Roman colony. were regarded as the forges of Hephaestus; and the (Dio Cass., 49, 16.-Plin., 5, 4.) It still, however, Cyclopes were associated with him as his assistants. retained, in some measure, its early constitution, and In Homer, when Thetis wants Hephæstian armour for hence is styled by Aulus Gellius a municipium (16, 13). her son, she seeks Olympus, and the armour is fashAt a later period, Utica was regarded, after Carthage, ioned by the artist-god with his own hand. In the the latter having been rebuilt, as the second in Africa. Augustan age Venus prevails on her husband, the Utica had no harbour, but safe roads in front of the master-smith, to furnish her son Æneas with arms; town. Its ruins are to be seen at the present day near and he goes down from Heaven to Hiera (one of the Porto Farina. (Mannert, Geogr., vol. 10, pt. 2, p. Liparean isles), and directs his men, the Cyclopes, to 288, seqq.) execute the order. (En., 8, 407, segg.) It is thus that mythology changes with modes of life. Hephastus and Minerva are frequently joined together as the communicators unto men of the arts which embellish life and promote civilization. The philosophy of this view of the two deities is correct and elegant. (Od., 6, 233. — Ib., 23, 160.-Hom., Hymn., 20. — Plato, VULCANI INSULEÆ. Polit., p. 177.- Völcker, Myth. der Iap., p. 21, seq.) -The artist-god is usually represented as of ripe age, VULCANUS, the god of fire, the same with the He- with a serious countenance and muscular form: his phæstus ("HoαtoTOS) of the Greeks. Hephaestus, the hair hangs in curls on his shoulders. He generally Olympian artist, is in Homer the son of Jupiter and appears with hammer and tongs at his anvil, in a short Juno. (П., 1, 572, 578.) According to Hesiod, how-tunic, and his right arm bare; sometimes with a pointever, he was the son of Juno alone, who was unwill-ed cap on his head. The Cyclopes are occasionally ing to be outdone by Jupiter when he had given birth to Minerva. (Theog., 927.) He was born lame, and his mother was so shocked at the sight of him that she flung him from Olympus. The Ocean-nymph Eurynome and the Nereid Thetis saved and concealed him in a cavern beneath the Ocean, where, during nine years, he employed himself in manufacturing for them various ornaments and trinkets. (Il., 18, 394, seqq.) We are not informed how his return to Olympus was effected; but we find him, in the Iliad, firmly fixed there; and all the mansions, furniture, ornaments, and arms of the Olympians were the work of his hands. It would be an almost endless task to enumerate all the articles formed by Hephaestus. Only the chief of them will here be noticed. One thing is remarkable concerning them, that they were all made of the various metals; no wood, or stone, or any other substance entering into their composition: they were, moreover, frequently endowed with automatism. Hephæstus made armour for Achilles and other mortal heroes.

VULCANALIA, festivals in honour of Vulcan, brought to Rome from Præneste, and observed in the month of August. The streets were illuminated, fires kindled everywhere, and animals thrown into the flames, as a sacrifice to the deity. (Varro, L. L., 5, 3.—Plin., 18, 13.)

para.

Vid. Eolia (Insula), and Li

placed with him.-Hephaestus must have been regarded originally as simply the fire-god, a view of his character which we find even in the Iliad (20, 73; 21, 330, seqq.). Fire being the great agent in reducing and working the metals, the fire-god naturally became an artist. The former was probably Hephæstus' Pelasgian, the latter his Achæan character. The Vulcan of the Latins was also, like Hephæstus, the god of fire, but he is not represented as an artist. He was said, in one legend, to be the father of Servius Tullius, whose wooden statue was, in consequence, spared by the flames when they consumed the temple of Fortune in which it stood. (Ovid, Fast., 6, 627.-Dion. Hal., 4, 40.) He was also the reputed father of Cæculus, the founder of Præneste, the legend of whose birth is nearly similar to that of Servius. (Virg., En., 7, 678, seqq. -Servius, ad loc.) Vulcan was united with a female power named Maia. (Keightley's Mythology, p. 107, 518.)

VULCATIUS, Gallicanus, one of the writers of the

Augustan History. He has the title of Vir Clarissimus, which indicates that he was a senator. Vulcatius lived under Dioclesian, and proposed to himself to write a history of all the Roman emperors; we have from him, however, only the life of Avidius Cassius. Some manuscripts even assign this biography to Spartianus.

band during his imprisonment. She must have been as deficient in understanding as she was froward in disposition if she had not profited by the daily lessons which, for twenty years, she received from such a master. (Enfield's History of Philosophy, vol. 1, p. 171.-Compare the remarks of Mendelsohn, in his life of Socrates, prefixed to his German version of Plato's Phædon, p. 17, seqq.)

XANTHIPPUS, I. a Spartan leader, who fought on the side of the Carthaginians in the first Punic war, and defeated Regulus. He is said to have left Carthage soon after this success, apprehending evil consequences to himself from the jealousy of the inhabitants. (Vid. Regulus.)-II. An Athenian commander, who led the forces of Athens at the battle of Mycale. He was father of the celebrated Pericles. (Vid. Mycale.)

men.

VULSINII OF VOLSINII, and also VULSINIUM OF VOLSINIUM, a city of Etruria, situate on the northern shore of the Lacus Vulsiniensis. It is generally allowed to rank among the first cities of the country. An account of its early contest with Rome is to be found in Livy (5, 31). About the time of the war against Pyrrhus, Vulsinii, which the Roman writers represent as a most opulent and flourishing place, becomes so enervated by its wealth and luxury as to allow its slaves to overthrow the constitution, and give way to the most un- XANTHUS OF XANTHOS, I. a river of Troas in Asia bridled licentiousness and excess, till at last the citi- Minor, the same as the Scamander, and, according to zens were forced to seek for that protection from Rome Homer, called Xanthus by the gods and Scamander by which they could not derive from their own resources. (Vid. remarks under the article Troja, " TopogThe rebels were speedily reduced, and brought to con- raphy of Troy.")-II. A river of Lycia, falling into dign punishment. (Val. Max., 8, 1.—Flor., 1, 21.— the sea above Patara. It was the most considerable Oros., 4, 5.) As a proof of the ancient prosperity of of the Lycian streams, and at an early period bore the Vulsinii, it is stated by Pliny, on the authority of Me-name of Sirbes, as Strabo writes it, but Sibrus actrodorus Scepsius, that it possessed, when taken by the Romans, no less than 2000 statues. (Plin., 34, 7.) From Livy we learn that the Etruscan goddess Nortia was worshipped there, and that it was customary to mark the years by fixing nails in her temples (7, 3). Vulsinii, at a later period, is noted as the birthplace of Sejanus. (Tac., Ann., 4, 1.) It is now Bolsena. (Cramer's Anc. Italy, vol. 1, p. 221, seqq.) VULTURNUM, a town of Campania, at the mouth of the river Vulturnus, and on the left bank. It is now Castel di Volturno. The origin of this city was probably Etruscan, but we do not find it mentioned in history until it became a Roman colony, A.U.C. 558. (Liv., 34, 45.) According to Frontinus, a second colony was sent thither by Cæsar. Festus includes it among the præfecturæ. (Cramer's Anc. Italy, vol. 2, p. 145.)

um,

VULTURNUS, I. a river of Campania, now Volturno, rising among the Apennines, in the territory of Samniand discharging its waters into the lower sea. At its mouth stood the town of Vulturnum. The modern name is the Volturno. A magnificent bridge, with a triumphal arch, was thrown over this river by Domitian when he caused a road to be constructed from Sinuessa to Puteoli; a work which Statius has undertaken to eulogize in some hundred lines of indifferent poetry. (Sylv., 4, 3.—Cramer's Anc. Italy, vol. 2, p. 144.)-II. A name applied by the Latin writers to the southeast wind, and answering to the Greek Evpóvotos. (Aul. Gell., 2, 22.-Vitruv., 1, 6.) UXANTIS, an island off the coast of Gaul, now Ushant. (Itin. Hieros., 509.)

cording to Panyasis (ap. Steph. Byz., s. v. Tpeμíhŋ). This stream was navigable for small vessels; and at the distance of seventy stadia from its mouth was Xanthus, the principal city of the Lycians. (Cramer's Asia Minor, vol. 2, p. 247.) Bochart, with great probability on his side, regards the name Xanthus as a mere translation into Greek of the Oriental and earlier name, since the term Zirba, both in Arabic and Phonician, is equivalent to the Greek Favoós, "yellow." (Geogr. Sacr., 1, 6, col. 363.)-III. The chief city of Lycia, situate on the river of the same name, at the distance of seventy stadia from its mouth. Pliny says it was fifteen miles from the sea; but that distance is too considerable, there being no doubt that the Lycian capital occupied the site of Aksenide, which occurs in the situation described by Strabo (666.-Compare Hecataus, ap. Steph. Byz., s. v. Záv0os). The Xanthians have twice been recorded in history for the dauntless courage and perseverance with which they defended their city against a hostile army. The first occasion occurred in the invasion of Lycia by the army of Cyrus under Harpagus, after the conquest of Lydia, when they buried themselves under the ruins of their walls and houses. (Herod., 1, 176.) The second event here alluded to took place many centuries later, during the civil wars consequent on the death of Cæsar. The Xanthians having refused to open their gates to the republican army commanded by Brutus, that general invested the town, and, after repelling every attempt made by the citizens to break through his lines, finally entered it by force. The Xanthians are said to have resisted still, and even to have perished in the flames, with their wives and children, rather than fall into the hands of the Roman general, who made many attempts to turn them away from their desperate purpose. (Plut., Vit. Brut.— Appian, Bell. Civ., 4, 18.-Dio Cass., 47, 34.)——Mr. Fellows describes the remains at Xanthus as all of the same date, and that a very early one. "The walls are many of them Cyclopean. The language of the innumerable and very perfect inscriptions is like the Phonician or Etruscan; and the beautiful tombs in the rocks are also of very early date. The city has not XANTHIPPE (Eavoiяяn), less correctly XANTIPPE, the appearance of having been very large, but its rethe wife of Socrates, represented by many of the an-mains show that it was highly ornamented, particularly cient writers as a perfect termagant. It is more than the tombs." A detailed account of several of these probable, however, that the infirmities of this good tombs, and of the sculptures upon them, is also given woman have been exaggerated, and that calumny has by the same traveller. (Fellows' Asia Minor, p. had some hand in finishing her picture; for Socrates 225, seqq.)-IV. An ancient historian of Lydia. We himself, in a dialogue with his son Lamprocles (Mem., learn from Suidas (s. v. Záv0oç) that his father's name 2, 2), allows her many domestic virtues; and we find was Candaules; that he flourished at the time of the her afterward expressing great affection for her hus- capture of Sardis by the Ionians (Ol. 69); and that he

UXELLODUNUM, a city in Aquitanic Gaul, in the territory of the Cadurci; now Pueche d'Issolon. (Cæs., B. G., 8, 32.)

Uxii, a mountaineer race occupying the ranges that run on each side of the river Orontes, and separate Persis from Susiana. They were predatory in their habits. (Diod., 27, 67.—Arrian, Ind., 3, 18.-Plin., 6, 27.)

X.

wrote a History of Lydia in four books. Suidas cites | pleasing to Antipater that he immediately released the the second. Dionysius of Halicarnassus also quotes this work, and speaks of the author in terms of high commendation. (Ant. Rom., vol. 1, p. 22, ed. Reiske.) The Lydiaca are quoted by Parthenius, in Stephanus of Byzantium, and probably by the scholiast on Apollonius Rhodius: by Hephæstion also (p. 14, ed. Gaisf.). The fragments of Xanthus are given by Creuzer in his "Historicorum Græcorum Antiquiss. Fragmenta," Heidelb., 1806, 8vo, p. 148, seqq. (Mus. Crit., vol. 2, p. 109, seqq.)

XENOCLES, an Athenian tragic poet, ridiculed by Aristophanes, and yet the conqueror of Euripides on one occasion (Olym. 91.2, B.C. 415). He was of dwarfish stature, and son of the tragic poet Carcinus. In the Pax, Aristophanes applies the term unxavodioas to the family. From the scholiast it appears that Xenocles was celebrated for introducing machinery and stage-shows, especially in the ascent or descent of his gods. (Theatre of the Greeks, 3d ed., p. 66.)

prisoners. It may be mentioned as another example of moderation in Xenocrates, that when Alexander, to mortify Aristotle, against whom he had an accidental pique, sent Xenocrates a magnificent present of fifty talents, he accepted only thirty mina, returning the rest to Alexander with this message: that the large sum which Alexander had sent was more than he should have been able to spend during his whole life. So abstemious was he with respect to food, that his provision was frequently spoiled before it was consumed. His chastity was invincible. Laïs, a celebrated Athenian courtesan, attempted, without success, to seduce him. Of his humanity, no other proof can be necessary than the following pathetic incident. A sparrow, which was pursued by a hawk, flew into his bosom; he afforded it shelter and protection till its enemy was out of sight, and then let it go, saying that he would never betray a suppliant. (E, V. H., 13, 31.) He was fond of retirement, and was seldom seen in the city. He was discreet in the use of his time, and carefully allotted a certain portion of each day to its proper business. One of these he employed in silent meditation. He was an admirer of the mathematical sciences, and was so fully convinced of their utility, that, when a young man who was unacquainted with geometry and astronomy desired admission, he refused his request, saying that he was not yet possessed of the handles of philosophy. In fine, Xenocrates was eminent both for the purity of his morals and for his acquaintance with science, and supported the credit of the Platonic school by his lectures, his writings, and his conduct. (Plut., de Virt. Mor., 2, p. 399.) He lived to the first year of the 116th Olympiad, B.C. 316, or the 82d of his age, when he lost his life by accidentally falling, in the dark, into a reservoir of water. The philosophical tenets of Xenocrates were truly Platonic, but in his method of teaching he made use of the language of the Pythagoreans. He made Unity and Diversity prinresented as the father, and the latter as the mother of the universe. He taught that the heavens are divine, and the stars celestial gods; and that, besides these divinities, there are terrestrial demons of a middle order, between the gods and man, which partake of the nature both of mind and body, and are there

XENOCRATES, I. an ancient philosopher, born at Chalcedon in the 95th Olympiad, B.C. 400. H first attached himself to Eschines, but afterward became a disciple of Plato, who took much pains in cultivating his genius, which was naturally heavy. Plato, comparing him with Aristotle, who was also one of his pupils, called the former a dull ass, who needed the spur, and the latter a mettlesome horse, who required the curb. His temper was gloomy, his aspect severe, and his manners little tinctured with urbanity. These material defects his master took great pains to correct, frequently advising him to sacrifice to the Graces; and the pupil was patient of instruction, and knew how to value the kindness of his preceptor. He compared himself to a vessel with a narrow orifice, which receives with difficulty, but firmly retains whatever is put into it. So affectionately was Xenocrates attached to his master, that when Dionysius, in a violent fit of anger, threatened to find one who should cut off his head, he said, "Not before he has cut off this," pointing to his own. As long as Plato lived, Xenoc-ciples in nature, or gods; the former of whom he reprates was one of his most esteemed disciples; after his death he closely adhered to his doctrine; and, in the second year of the hundred and tenth Olympiad, B.C. 339, he took the chair in the Academy as the successor of Speusippus. Aristotle, who, about this time, returned from Macedonia, in expectation, as it should seem, of filling the chair, was greatly disap-fore, like human beings, capable of passions and liable pointed and chagrined at this nomination, and imme- to diversity of character. (Diog. Laert., 4, 9, 10.— diately instituted a school in the Lyceum, in opposi- Plut. in Alex., vol. 5, p. 551.- Val. Max., 4, 3.tion to that of the Academy where Xenocrates con- Stob., Ecl. Phys., 1, 3. - Plut., de Is. et. Os., vol. 2, tinued to preside till his death. Xenocrates was cel- p. 157.-Enfield's Hist. Philos., vol. 1, p. 244, seqq.) ebrated among the Athenians, not only for his wisdom,-II. A Greek physician of Aphrodisias, a work of but also for his virtues. (Val. Max., 2, 10.—Cic., ad Att., 2, 16.- Diog. Laert., 4, 7.) So eminent was his reputation for integrity, that when he was called upon to give evidence in a judicial transaction, in which an oath was usually required, the judges unanimously agreed that his simple asseveration should be XENOPHANES, the founder of the Eleatic sect, was taken, as a public testimony to his merit. Even a native of Colophon, and born, according to EusebiPhilip of Macedon found it impossible to corrupt us, about B.C. 556. From some cause which is not him. When he was sent, with several others, upon related, Xenophanes early left his country and took an embassy to that prince, he declined all private in- refuge in Sicily, where he supported himself by retercourse with him, that he might escape the tempta- citing, at the court of Hiero, elegiac and iambic vertion of a bribe. Philip afterward said, that of all those ses, which he had written in reprehension of the Thewho had come to him on embassies from foreign ogonies of Hesiod and Homer. From Sicily he passstates, Xenocrates was the only one whose friendship ed over into Magna Græcia, where he took up the he had not been able to purchase. (Diog. Laert., 4, profession of philosophy, and became a celebrated pre8.) During the time of the Lamiac war, being sent ceptor in the Pythagorean school. Indulging, howan ambassador to the court of Antipater for the re- ever, a greater freedom of thought than was usual demption of several Athenian captives, he was invited among the disciples of Pythagoras, he ventured to inby the prince to sit down with him at supper, but de- troduce new opinions of his own, and in many parclined the invitation in the words of Ulysses to Circe. ticulars to oppose the doctrines of Epimenides, Tha(Odyss., 10, 383.) This pertinent and ingenious ap-les, and Pythagoras. He possessed the Pythagorean plication of a passage in Homer, or, rather, the gen-chair of philosophy about 70 years, and lived to the erous and patriotic spirit which it expressed, was so extreme age of 100 years. In metaphysics, Xenoph

whose is still remaining, on the aliment afforded by fishes. The best edition is that published at Naples in 1794, 8vo, and which is based upon the edition of Franzius, which last appeared in 1774, Lips., 8vo. (Sprengel, Hist. de la Med, vol. 2, p. 57.)

anes taught that if there ever had been a time when | The prince promised, if he would enter into his sernothing existed, nothing could ever have existed. vice, to send him home in safety after his expedition That whatever is, always has been from eternity, with- against the Pisidians should have terminated. Xenoout deriving its existence from any prior principle; phon, believing the intended expedition to have no that nature is one and without limit; that what is one other end than this, consented to take part in it, being is similar in all its parts, else it would be many; that equally deceived with Proxenus himself; for, of all the one infinite, eternal, and homogeneous universe the Greeks who accompanied Cyrus, Clearchus alone is immutable and incapable of change; that God is was from the beginning in the secret. The army of one incorporeal eternal being, and, like the universe, Cyrus marched from Sardis, through Lydia, Phrygia, spherical in form; that he is of the same nature with Lycaonia, and Cappadocia, crossed the mountains of the universe, comprehending all things within himself; Cilicia, passed through Cilicia and Syria to the Euis intelligent, and pervades all things, but bears no re-phrates, forded this river, passed through a part of semblance to human nature either in body or mind. Arabia and Babylonia, until they reached the plain of (Enfield's History of Philosophy, vol. 1, p. 414.) Cunaxa. After the fatal battle of Cunaxa and the XENOPHON, I. a celebrated Athenian, son of Gryl- fall of Cyrus, Xenophon advised his fellow-soldiers lus, distinguished as an historian, philosopher, and rather to trust to their own bravery than surrender commander, born at Ercheia, a borough of the tribe themselves to the victor, and to attempt a retreat into Ægeis, B.C. 445. (Letronne, Biogr. Univ., vol. 51, their own country. They listened to his advice; and, p. 370.) Xenophon was unquestionably one of the having had many proofs of his wisdom as well as courmost respectable characters among the disciples of age, they elected him one of the five new commanders, Socrates. He strictly adhered to the principles of his chosen to supply the place of their former leaders, master in action as well as opinion, and employed phi- who had been entrapped and slain by Tissaphernes. losophy, not to furnish him with the means of osten- Xenophon was appointed in the room of Proxenus, and tation, but to qualify him for the offices of public and soon became the soul of all the movements of the private life. While he was a youth, Socrates, struck Greeks in their memorable retreat, acquiring great with the comeliness of his person (for he regarded a glory by the prudence and firmness with which he confair form as a probable indication of a well-propor- ducted them back, through the midst of innumerable tioned mind), determined to admit him into the num- dangers. The particulars of this memorable advenber of his pupils. Meeting him by accident in a nar- ture are related by Xenophon himself, in his Anabasis, row passage, the philosopher put forth his staff across or Retreat of the Ten Thousand. In retreating, the the path, and, stopping him, asked where those things object of the Greeks was to strike the Euxine; but were to be purchased which are necessary to human the error they committed was in making that sea exlife. Xenophon appearing at a loss for a reply to this tend too far to the east. From Cunaxa they turned unexpected salutation, Socrates proceeded to ask him their course to the Tigris, crossed that river, marched where honest and good men were to be found. Xen- through Media, northward, still following the course ophon still hesitating, Socrates said to him, "Follow of the Tigris. They then crossed the mountains of me, and learn." From that time Xenophon became a the Carduchi, and, after great exertions, reached the disciple of Socrates, and made a rapid progress in that sources of the river just mentioned. After this they moral wisdom for which his master was so eminent. traversed Armenia, crossed the Euphrates not far from Xenophon accompanied Socrates in the Peloponnesian its source, lost many of their number in the marshes war, and fought courageously in defence of his coun- through the cold and snow, and came to the Phasis. try. It was at the battle of Delium, in the early part Leaving this stream, they passed through the countries of this war, that Socrates, according to some accounts, of the Taochi, Chalybes, Macrones, Colchians, and at saved the life of his pupil. In another battle, also last reached the Greek colony of Trapezus on the fought in Boeotia, but of which history has preserved coast of the Euxine Sea. As there were not ships no trace, Xenophon would seem to have been made enough there to receive them all, they determined to prisoner by the enemy; for Philostratus (Vit. Soph., return home by land, and, marching along the coast of 1, 12) informs us that he attended the instructions of the Euxine, came to Chrysopolis opposite Byzantium. Prodicus of Ceos while he was a prisoner in Bocotia. After having crossed over to the latter city, and been How his time was employed during the period which deceived by the promises of Anaxibius, the Spartan preceded his serving in the army of Cyrus is not as- admiral, they entered into the service of Seuthes, king certained; it is more than probable, however, that he of Thrace, who had solicited their aid. This prince, was engaged during the interval in several campaigns, however, proving faithless, and paying them only a since the skill and experience displayed in conducting part of their stipulated recompense, they finally enthe retreat of the Ten Thousand presuppose a familiar tered into the service of Thymbron, who had been diacquaintance with the art of war. At the age of forty- rected by the Spartans to raise an army and make war three or forty-four years, he was invited by Proxenus upon the satraps Pharnabazus and Tissaphernes. Acthe Boeotian, formerly a disciple of Gorgias of Leon-cording to Xenophon, the whole distance traversed by tini, and one of Xenophon's intimate friends, to en- the Greeks, both in going and returning, was 1155 ter into the service of Cyrus the younger, the brother parasangs, or 34,650 stadia. The whole time taken of Artaxerxes Mnemon of Persia. Xenophon consult-up was fifteen months, of which the retreat itself oced Socrates in relation to this step, and the philoso-cupied less than eight. Having returned to Greece, pher disapproved of it, being apprehensive lest his old Xenophon, after an interval of four or five years, joined pupil might incur the displeasure of the Athenians by Agesilaus, king of Sparta, and fought with him, not joining a prince who had shown himself disposed to only in Asia, but also against the Thebans at home, aid the Lacedæmonians in their war against Athens. in the battle of Coronea. The Athenians, displeased He advised him, however, to visit Delphi, and consult at this alliance, brought a public accusation against the god about his intended scheme. Xenophon obey-him for his former conduct in engaging in the service ed, but merely asked the oracle to which one of the of Cyrus, and condemned him to exile. The Spargods he ought to sacrifice and offer up vows in order tans, upon this, took Xenophon, as an injured man, unto ensure the success of what he was then meditating.der their protection, and provided him with a comfortFor this Socrates blamed him, but, nevertheless, ad- able retreat at Scilluns in Elis, making him a present vised him to do what the god had enjoined, and then of a dwelling there, with considerable land attached to take his departure. At Sardis, Xenophon met his to it. According to Pausanias (5, 6), they gave him friend Proxenus, and obtained, through him, an intro- the entire town of Scilluns. Here he remained, if we duction to Cyrus, by whom he was well received. | believe the same Pausanias, for the remainder of his