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VAGA, Sometimes, but improperly, written Vacca, a town of Africa, west of Carthage, on the river Rubricatus, and celebrated among the African and Numidian cities for its extensive traffic. D'Anville and Barbie du Bocage recognise traces of the ancient name in the modern Vegja or Beja, in the district of Tunis. (Sall., Jug., 47.—Sil. Ital., 3, 259.)

the rubbish of Old Tyre, thirty furlongs off, that sup- VACUNA, a goddess worshipped principally by the plied materials for the gigantic mole constructed by Sabines, but also by the Latins. According to some Alexander, of 200 feet in breadth, extending all the authorities she was identical with Victoria, and the way from the continent to the island, a distance of three Lake Cutilia was sacred to her. (Arnob., 3, p. 112, quarters of a mile. The sea that formerly separated ed. Stewech.-Spangenberg, De Vet. Lat. Rel. Dothem was shallow near the shore, but towards the isl-mest., p. 47.) Others made her analogous to Diana, and it is said to have been three fathoms in depth. Ceres, or Minerva. This last was the opinion of The causeway has probably been enlarged by the sand Varro. (Schol. ad Horat., Epist., 1, 10, 49.) Her thrown up by the sea, which now covers the surface name apparently comes from vaco, the reason of of the isthmus. Tyre was taken by the Macedonian which etymology is given as follows by Varro: "quod conqueror after a siege of eight months, B.C. 332, ea maxime hi gaudent qui sapientiæ vacant.” (Varro, two hundred and forty-one years after its destruction ap. Schol., l. c.) by Nebuchadnezzar, and, consequently, about one hun- VADIMONIS LACUS, a lake of Etruria, whose waters dred and seventy after it had been rebuilt. Though were sulphureous. It formerly existed close to Basnow subjugated, it was not, however, totally destroyed, | sano, but is now filled up with peat and rushes. (Sensince, only thirty years after, it was an object of con- eca, Nat. Hist. Quæst., 3, 25.- Plin., 2, 95.) This tention to Alexander's successors. The fleet of An-lake is celebrated in the history of Rome for having tigonus invested and blockaded it for thirteen months, witnessed the total defeat of the Etruscans by the Roat the expiration of which it was compelled to surren- mans, A.U.C. 444, a defeat so decisive that they never der, and received a garrison of his troops for its de- could recover from its effects. (Lavy, 9, 39.) Anfence. About three years after it was invested by other battle was again fought here by the Etruscans, Pompey in person, and, owing to a mutiny in the garri-in conjunction with the Gauls, against the Romans, son, fell into his hands. Its history is, after this period, with the same ill success. (Polyb., 2, 20.-Flor., 1, identified with that of Syria. In the apostolic age it 12.) seems to have regained some measure of its ancient character as a trading town; and St. Paul, in touching here on one occasion, in his way back from Macedonia, found a number of Christian believers, with whom he spent a week; so that the gospel must early have been preached to the Tyrians. (Acts, 21, 3.) Josephus, in speaking of the city of Zabulon as of admirable beauty, says that its houses were built like those in Tyre, and Sidon, and Berytus. Strabo also speaks of the loftiness and beauty of the buildings. In ecclesiastical history it is distinguished as the first archbishopric under the patriarchate of Jerusalem. It shared the fate of the country in the Saracen invasion in the beginning of the seventh century. It was reconquered by the crusaders in the twelfth, and formed a royal domain of the kingdom of Jerusalem, as well as an archiepiscopal see. William of Tyre, the well-known historian, an Englishman, was the first archbishop. In 1289 it was retaken by the Saracens, the Christians being permitted to remove with their effects. When the sultan Selim divided Syria into pachalics, Tyre, which had probably gone to decay with the depression of commerce, was merged in the territory of Sidon. In 1766 it was taken possession of by the Motoualies, who repaired the port, and enclosed it, on the land side, with a wall twenty feet high. The wall was standing, but the repairs had gone to ruin, at the time of Volney's visit (1784). He noticed, however, the choir of the ancient church mentioned by Maundrell, together with some columns of red granite, of a species unknown in Syria, which Djezzar Pacha wanted to remove to Acre, but could find no engineers able to accomplish it. It was at that time a miserable village its exports consisted of a few sacks of corn and of cotton; and the only merchant of which it could boast was a solitary Greek, in the service of the French factory at Sidon, who could hardly gain a livelihood. It is only within the past half century that it has once more begun to lift up its head from the dust. (Modern Traveller, pt. 3, p. 46, seqq.)

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VAGENI, or, more correctly, VAGIENNI, a people of Liguria, in the interior of the country, and near the angle formed by the separation of the Apennines and Alps. Their name, as D'Anville observes, is still apparent in that of Viorena. Their capital was Augusta Vagiennorum, now Vico, according to D'Anville, but more correctly Bene, according to Durandi. (Sil. Ital., 8, 607.-Plin., 3, 5.- Cramer's Ancient Italy, vol. 1, p. 27.)

VAHALIS, the western arm of the Rhine, now the Waal. (Cas., 4, 10.-Tac., Ann., 2, 6.)

VALENS, FLAVIUS, an emperor of the East. His biography will be given in conjunction with that of his brother Valentinian I. (Vid. Valentinianus I.)

VALENTIA, I. a secret and hallowed name of Rome. (Plin., 3, 5.-Id. ibid., 28, 2. — Serv. ad Æn., 1, 280.)-II. A city of the Segovellauni or Segalauni, in Gallia Narbonensis, now Valence. (Plin., 3, 4.) It lay on the eastern side of the Rhodanus, above Alba Augusta.-III. A city of Mauritania Tingitana, north of Volubile Oppidum, and south of Lixum, situate on the river Subur. It was also called Banasa, and is now Mamora. (Plin., 5, 1.)-IV. A province of Britain, in what is now Scotland, conquered in the time of Valentinian from the Picts and Scots, and formed by Theodosius into a province. (Amm. Marc., 28, 3.)-V. A city of the Edetani or Contestani, in Hispania Tarraconensis, near the mouth of the Tusia. It was taken and sacked by Pompey, but was afterward colonized and became an important place. It is now Valentia.-VI. or Vibo Valentia. (Vid. Hipponium.)

VALENTINIANUS, I. the first of the name, a man of moderate rank, and born at Cibale in Hungary, was made emperor by the army, being, at the time of Jovian's death, the commander of the body-guard. He associated with himself Valens, his brother, and, after some time, Gratian, his son, who, at eight years old, was presented to the army wearing a purple robe. Valens fixing his court at Constantinople, Valentinian himself repaired to Milan. Soon after the accession of these emperors, both the West and East were disturbed nearly at the same time; the former by an irruption of the Alemanni into Gaul, the latter by the insurrection of Procopius, who, pretending a promise

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of Julian that he would leave him heir of the empire, | over which he desired to place a king of his own elecwas saluted Augustus by the multitude at Constanti- tion, pressed forward with his army, but was repulsed nople; and, having been joined by the legions sent by Trajan and Vadomair, the allied king of the Aleagainst him by Valens, reduced Thrace, Bithynia, and manni. In the mean time, a plot, having for its object the Hellespont. Deserted by his followers in Phrygia, to place Theodorus, a secretary and an accomplished he fled into the mountains, was taken alive, brought character, on the throne, was betrayed to Valens; and bound before Valens, and, being sentenced to be tied the conspirators, together with Theodorus, consigned by the legs to two trees that were forcibly bent to the to the executioner. The plot, it is said, originated in ground, was torn asunder by their recoil (A.D. 366). an oracle, divulged in Asia, which predicted that one The Alemanni defeated the Roman armies in Gaul, whose name began with Theo should be emperor, and killing the commanders, the counts Charietto and Se- this was afterward interpreted to mean Theodosius. verian; but were, in their turn, routed by Jovinus, the A new enemy had now rolled its congregated nummaster of the horse, with the loss of six thousand slain bers on the Roman world, with terror darkening in and four thousand wounded. Valens marched against their van. The Goths were displaced by the Huns, the Goths, who had assisted Procopius, and in three and urged forward by the impulsion. They obtained years reduced them to terms of peace. He also re- permission of Valens to make a settlement in Thrace, pressed the predatory incursions of the Isaurians, a and swore fealty to him, but afterward revolted under sort of mountain robbers, and exacted hostages. The their general Fridigern. Surprised, as they were laden Picts and Scots, who had ravaged Britain, were de- with spoil, by the Roman general Sebastian, they were feated by Count Theodosius, and their spoil retaken. routed, and the booty was retaken. Gratian, who had Valentinian crossed the Rhine, gained a bloody vic- defeated another body of Goths by his general Frigertory over the Alemanni, and fortified the Gallic fron- idus, near Strasburg, and permitted the remnant to tier with camps and castles. The Saxons, who had settle on the Po, advanced to the assistance of Vaburst into Gaul, were subdued by treachery. After lens; but the latter, eager to distinguish himself and their proposition of retiring from the country had been jealous of his nephew, risked a battle with all the conacceded to, they were set upon, while passing through federated Goths, in which the Roman army, after a a valley, by troops planted in ambuscade, and cut to brave struggle, the band of lancers, in particular, standpieces. A similar act of perfidy was committed against ing firm to the last around their emperor, was put to the Quadi, who had been irritated by the placing of an total rout, and the field heaped with its dead. Valens intrenched camp on their soil. Their king, Gabinius, taking refuge in a country-house with only a few folwho was invited by the Roman general Maximin to a lowers, who resisted from the roof the attempt of the banquet, was waylaid on his retiring, and murdered. Goths to break the door, the latter set fire to the buildThe result was a general insurrection of the Quadi, ing, and he perished with the rest in the flames (A.D. who overran both Pannonias, and cut to pieces two 378). Valens was of a middle height, with legs rather entire legions. Valentinian crossing the Danube, and bowed, somewhat corpulent, and of a high-coloured wasting the country of the Quadi with fire and sword, complexion. One of his eyes was obstructed by a the latter sent ambassadors to sue for peace. Valen- cataract, but it was not discernible at a little distance. tinian, preparing to answer their address, in a parox- Ignorant of art and literature, he was but imperfectly ysm of rage burst a vessel, and expired of the effusion versed in military tactics. With a sluggish and proof blood (A.D. 375). The choleric and implacable crastinating habit of mind he united a dogmatical imtemper of Valentinian, urging him frequently to acts patience of temper, and in the courts of law, without of the most atrocious injustice, is singularly irrecon- caring for the merits of the case, was offended by any cilable with his religious moderation. It is said that decision which counteracted his own wishes. Though he was about to issue an order for the magistrates of bitter against those who withstood his will or differed three towns to be put to death, because one of the from him in sentiment, he was not incapable of friendjudges had directed the execution of a sentence legally ship.-II. Valentinian II. was proclaimed Augustus passed on a Hungarian, and only desisted from his at four years old, as the colleague of Gratian, and repurpose on the expostulation of his quæstor Euprax-sided with his mother, the Empress Justina, at the ius, who reminded the "most pious of princes" that court of Milan. Maximus, having established himself guiltless persons, if slain, would by Christians be wor- in Britain and Gaul, drove Valentinian out of Italy. shipped as martyrs. It is also related, that, on a cer- The youth stood as a suppliant before the throne of tain count complaining to him of a civil action, he sent Constantinople with the empress-mother and his sisto execution not only the plaintiff, but the very clerks ter Galla. The hand of the latter became a pledge of of the court who served the notice; and that the the hospitality and aid of the enamoured Theodosius. Christians of Milan gave the place of their interment Valentinian was thus restored, through the aid of Thethe name of the "Tomb of the Innocents." That he odosius, to the throne of the Western empire; a throne refused to admit the challenges of judges by defend- which his weak character did not enable him to fill and ants in a cause, when preferred on the ground of pri- defend. The new reign of this young prince was not vate enmity, and that he condemned insolvent debtors of long duration. He removed the seat of the court to death, are scarcely credible charges. Not destitute to Vienna (now Vienne), on the Rhone, where he was of ingenuity, he invented some new weapons, and had assassinated, A.D. 392, by order of Arbogastes, gena turn for painting and modelling. Report describes eral of the Franks, whose authority had long predomhim as tall and muscular, with a florid complexion, inated over that of his master. This prince was a hair of a fiery colour, and gray eyes, which had a pe- youth of excellent qualities, temperate, studious, and culiarly fierce expression from his always looking affectionate.-III. Valentinian III. was the son of askance. The body of Valentinian was conveyed to Constantius and Placidia, daughter of Theodosius the Constantinople. In the East, another violation of that Great. He was only six years of age when he was hospitality which among barbarians is held sacred, took proclaimed Emperor of the West, A.D. 423; but he place in the person of Para, king of Armenia. Invi- was not actually recognised as such until 425, after ted by Valens to Tarsus, and detained there specious- the defeat of John the Notary, who had seized upon ly as a guest, he escaped on horseback by night to his the empire. Placidia, who possessed at first all the own kingdom, but was then inveigled to an entertain-authority, governed with much wisdom. Aetius, worment by Duke Trajan, and, in the midst of wine and thy, by his valour and military talents, of the fairest music, stabbed by a hired barbarian as he reclined on period of the Roman republic, preserved for the emthe supper-couch. Sapor, who had in vain endeavour-pire the territory of Gaul, continually invaded by new ed to bring Valens into his terms respecting Armenia, enemies, and forced the Franks, the Goths, the Bur

VALERIA LEX, I. de Provocatione, by P. Valerius Publicola. (Vid. Valerius I.) It granted to every one the liberty of appealing from the consuls to the people, and that no magistrate should be permitted to punish a Roman citizen who thus appealed. This law was afterward once and again renewed, and always by persons of the Valerian family. (Liv., 2, 8.-Dion. Hal., 5, 19.-Heinecc., Rom. Ant., p. 246, seqq., ed. Haubold.)-II. Another, de Debitoribus, by L. Valerius Flaccus, consul A.U.C. 667. It enacted that debtors should be discharged on paying one fourth of their debts. (Vell. Paterc., 2, 23.)-III. Another, by M. Valerius Corvinus, A.U.C. 453, which confirmed the first Valerian law enacted by Publicola.IV. Another, called also Horatia, by L. Valerius and M. Horatius, the consuls, A.U.C. 304. It revived the first Valerian law, which under the triumvirate had lost its force.-V. Another, de Magistratibus, by P. Valerius Publicola, A.U.C. 243. It created two quæstors to take care of the public treasure, which was for the future to be kept in the temple of Saturn. (Plut., Vit. Publ.)

gundians, and the Alani to sue for peace. Count Bon- liberties, he was suspected of a design to make himself iface, however, was less fortunate in Africa, and could absolute. On being informed, however, of the dissatnot prevent Genseric, king of the Vandals, from found-isfaction felt on this subject by the people, he immeing an empire there in 442. Valentinian was by this diately caused the edifice to be razed to the ground, time of an age to govern for himself; but the only use took from the fasces the axe, the emblem of capital he made of his power was to commit crimes and to punishment, caused the same fasces to be lowered bedisgrace himself by acts of debauchery. Aëtius sub-fore the people at their next general assembly, and alsequently (A.D. 451) gained a complete victory over ways afterward on similar occasions, and finally bad Attila, in the plains of Duro-Catalaunum (Chalons), the celebrated law of appeal (lex Provocationis) passed, when Valentinian, jealous of his glory, had him sent which protected the rights and persons of Roman citfor, and, on a sudden, stabbed him to the heart. He izens against the tyranny of magistrates. (Vid. Vadid not, however, long survive this cowardly act. leria Lex I.) This conduct rendered Valerius the idol The following year, having violated the wife of Petro- of the populace, and obtained for him the surname of nius Maximus, a man of consular rank, the outraged Publicola, in allusion to his great popularity. (Vid. husband slew him (A.D. 455), in the thirty-sixth year Publicola.) He was also continued in the consulship of his age and thirty-first of his reign, and then ascend- for the two succeeding years, B.C. 508 and 507. He ed his throne. (Hetherington's History of Rome, p. was chosen consul anew in 504. He appears to have 250, seqq.-Elton's Hist. Roman Emperors, p. 217, died not long after. The disinterestedness of this ilseqq.) lustrious citizen was so great, that, after having been four times consul, he died a poor man, and the expense of his funeral had to be borne by the state. The Roman matrons mourned for him a whole year. (Liv., 1, 58—Id., 2, 8. — Id., 3, 55. — Id., 10, 9. — Dron. Hal., 5, 19.-Flor., 1, 9.-Plut., Vit. Public.-Horat., Sat., 1, 6, 12.)-II. Corvus Corvinus, a tribune of the soldiers under Camillus. When the Roman army was challenged by one of the Senones, remarkable for his strength and stature, Valerius undertook to engage him, and obtained an easy victory by means of a crow or raven (corvus) that assisted him, and attacked the face of the Gaul, whence his surname of Corvus or Corvinus. Valerius triumphed over the Etrurians and the neighbouring states that made war against Rome, and was six times honoured with the consulship. He died in the 100th year of his age, admired and regretted for many private and public virtues. (Val. Max., 8, 13.—Liv, 7, 27.)-III. Antias, a Roman historian, who flourished about A.U.C. 670, B.C. 84. Pliny often refers to him. Aulus Gellius quotes the 12th, 24th, 45th, and 75th books of his annals. (Aul. Gell., 7, 9.—Id., 1, 7, &c.)-IV. Messala. (Vid. Messala.)-V. Maximus, a Roman writer, born at Rome during the reign of Augustus, of a patrician family. According to his own account, he served in Asia under Sextus Pompey, who was consul the year that Augustus died (2, 6, 8). On his return to Rome he abstained entirely from public affairs, and lived until the time of the conspiracy of Sejanus, A.D. 31. We have no other particulars of his life. The anonymous but ancient author of his life makes him to have been descended from the Valerian family on the father's side, and from the Fabian on the mother's side. His surname Maximus indicates the latter part of his genealogy. In a work composed originally of ten books, but of which only nine remain, and entitled Dictorum factorumque memorabilium libri, he has collected together the sayings and actions of individuals of various eras and nations, which he found scattered over historical works, and deemed worthy of being transmitted to posterity. The collection is dedicated to Tiberius. He classifies the individuals of whom he treats, ac

VALERIANUS, PUBLIUS LICINIUS, a Roman, proclaimed emperor by the army in Rhætia, of which he was commander, A.D. 254. He had been distinguished by his virtues while in a private station, and great expectations were consequently formed of him when he ascended the throne. Having appointed his son Gallienus to be his associate in the empire, he left him to defend it against the incursions of the Goths and Germans, and marched to the east to oppose the Persian king Sapor. Valerian was defeated and taken prisoner by the Persians, who treated him with great and contemptuous cruelty. His degenerate son Gallienus made no effort to obtain his release, being apparently more satisfied to reign alone. For many years the Roman emperor bowed himself down, that his body might serve as a stepping-stone to the Persian king when he mounted on horseback: he was at last flayed alive, and his skin, stuffed in the form of a human figure and dyed with scarlet, was preserved in a temple in Persia. (Treb. Poll., Valerian. Vit.) VALERIUS PUBLIUS, I. a celebrated Roman, sur-cording to some peculiar virtue or vice, of which they named Publicola (vid. Publicola), and who shared with Junius Brutus the glory of having driven out the Tarquins and of founding the Roman commonwealth, B.C. 569. Brutus having fallen on the field of bat tle, and Collatinus, the colleague of the former, having been compelled eventually to retire from Rome in consequence of his relationship to the Tarquin family, Valerius was chosen consul along with Sp. Lucretius Tricipitinus. This last died during the earlier part of his year, and Valerius remained sole consul. As he appeared in no haste to have a new colleague, and was, at the same time, engaged in erecting a mansion on a lofty eminence, which, to the jealous vision of his countrymen, looked like a fortress against their

are cited as examples. He first confines himself to Romans, and then passes to other nations, especially the Greeks. The titles of his chapters are the work of the grammarians or copyists, as appears very clearly from the use of words which were unknown during the best age of Roman literature. Valerius displays neither judgment in his choice of anecdotes, nor skill in their arrangement, nor good taste in the use of expressions, and in the transitions which he frequently makes from the natural order of things. No one ever carried flattery to a greater extent: his preface, addressed to Tiberius, is perfectly disgusting. His manner of narrating is far from pleasing, and his style is cold, declamatory, and affected. Notwithstanding its

faults, however, the work is interesting both for the history and the study of antiquity, and contains a number of little facts taken from authors whose works have not reached us. Some critics believe, though on no very sure grounds, that the work in question is a compilation from a larger one by the same author, and was executed by C. Titus Probus or Julius Paris. Others, in like manner, ascribe it to Januarius Nepotianus. These three individuals are equally unknown. -The best editions of Valerius Maximus are, that of Vorstius, Berol., 1672, 8vo; that of Torrenius, Lugd. Bat., 1726, 4to; that of Kappius, Lips., 1782, 8vo; and that of Hase, Paris, 1822, 3 vols. 8vo (including Obsequens de Prodigiis), which last forms part of the collection of Lemaire.-VI. Flaccus, a Latin poet who flourished under Vespasian. He wrote a poem in eight books on the Argonautic expedition, but it remained unfinished on account of his premature death. The manuscripts of this poem add to the name of Va-midia, but crossed over into Italy, A.D. 455, and lerius Flaccus that of Setinus Balbus. It has been supposed by some critics that this last was the name of a grammarian who made a revision of the text, or who, perhaps, was the possessor of a remarkable manuscript. The birthplace of the writer is also involved in some doubt. It is believed by many that his native place was Patavium, and this opinion is founded on various passages of Martial. Others suppose that he was born at Setia Campania, and allege the name Setinus in favour of this position. The latter name, however, has been explained above. There has come down to us, among the epigrams of Martial, one addressed to Valerius Flaccus, in which the former advises him to renounce poetry, and apply himself to the studies of the bar, as affording a better means for accumulating a fortune. From this some have been led to believe that his poetical talents were not held in very high esteem by his contemporaries. Quintilian, however, speaks of his death as a great loss to literature. He died A.D. 88, in the reign of Domitian. The "Argonautics" of Valerius Flaccus are in eight books, the last imperfect. Had the poem been completed, it is thought that it would have occupied ten or VARIUS, L. a contemporary of Virgil and Horace, twelve books. It is an imitation of the work of Apol- and one of the best tragic poets of his time. He comlonius of Rhodes on the same subject. The critics posed a drama entitled Thyestes, which, in the judgare far from being agreed as to its merits: some rankment of Quintilian, deserved to be ranked with the it next to the Eneid; while others, who regard beauty of diction as less essential than invention, assign it a much lower rank, and give the preference to the poems of Statius, Lucan, and even Silius Italicus. In truth, the "Argonauties" are clearly deficient in originality. The principal fault of the poem is, that the enterprise of the Argonauts, which forms the chief interest of the fable, is continually lost sight of amid numerous digressions and episodes. Hence the poem wears in general a cold and monotonous appearance. It is not, however, without beauties; it contains descriptions highly poetical, and some very ingenious comparisons. It is remarkable that in the passages where Valerius does not imitate Apollonius, he is far more elegant than in those where he copies him. His style is concise and energetic, but oftentimes obscure and affected. Frequently, too, he sacrifices nature to art, and to an anxiety for displaying the stores of his erudition. The best editions of Valerius Flaccus are, that of Burmann, L. Bat., 1724, 4to; that of Harles, Altenb., 1781, 8vo; that of Wagner, Götting., 1805, 8vo; that of Weichert, Mis. ap. Goed., 1818, 8vo; and that of Lemaire (forming part of his collection), Paris, 1824-5, 2 vols. 8vo. (Schöll, Hist. Lit. Rom., vol. 2, p. 294, seqq.)

commended. (Sat., 1, 10, 82.) Quintilian makes no mention of him. (Schöll, Hist. Lit. Rom., v. 1, p. 227.) VANDALII, a people of Germany. The Vandals seem to have been of Gothic origin. Pliny and Procopius agree in making them such, and the latter writer more especially affirms, in express terms, that the Goths and Vandals, though distinguished by name, were the same people, agreeing in their manners, and speaking the same language. They were called Vandals from the Teutonic term wenden, which signifies to wander. They began to be troublesome to the Romans A.D. 160, in the reign of Aurelius and Verus: in the year 410 they made themselves masters of Spain, in conjunction with the Alani and Suevi, and received for their share what from them was termed Vandalitia, now Andalusia. In 429 they crossed into Africa under Genseric, who not only made himself master there of Byzacium, Gætulia, and part of Nuplundered Rome. After the death of Genseric the Vandal power declined. (Dio Cass., 71, 12. — Eutrop., 8, 13.-Procop., B. G., 1, 2.-Tac., Germ.; 2. -Jornand., 22, 27.)

VANGIONES, a German tribe along the Rhine. Their capital was Augusta Vangionum, called also Borbetomagus, now Worms. (Tac., Hist., 4, 70.—Id., Germ., 28.-Plin., 4, 17.)

VARDANUS OF VARDANIUS, a river of Asia, called otherwise Hypanis, which rises in the central part of Caucasus, and falls into the Palus Mæotis by several mouths. It receives in its course all the water of the western branch of the Caucasian chain. The sandy plain, which extends to the north of this river, furnishes it with more. Its two principal mouths embrace. the island of Taman, in which the town of Fanegoria, the ancient Phanagoria, attracts a little trade. The modern name Kuban of the river Hypanis preserves traces of the ancient appellation, since, according to the pronunciaton of the dialects of the north of Asia, the h, uttered from the throat, becomes k. (Ptol.Malte-Brun, Geogr., vol. 2, p. 43, Am. ed.)

VALGIUS RUFUS, a Roman poet in the Augustan age, on whom Tibullus (4, 1, 80) passes a high eulogium ("Valgius, æterno propior non alter Homero"), which, in all probability, comes rather from the warm friend than the sober critic. Horace speaks of him as one of those by whom he would wish his productions to be

finest chefs d'œuvre of the Greeks. He also distin-. guished himself in the department of epic verse, and Horace places him at the head of the epic poets of his time. The Eneid of Virgil, however, had not yet been published. Varius sung the exploits of Augustus and his son-in-law Agrippa, so that his poem appears to have been rather historical than epic in its character. It is entirely lost. Macrobius, however, has preserved for us a few fine lines from another poem of Varius', on Death. (Sat., 6, 1, 2.)—The scholiast on Horace, commonly known by the name of the Scholiast of Cruquius, accuses Varius of having stolen the tragedy referred to above from Cassius Severus of Parma, a poet of the same period, mentioned with eulogium by Horace. (Epist., 1, 4, 3.) This charge has been since reiterated by several of the learned, and, among others, by Vossius (de Poët. Lat., p. 23), by Gesner, and Baxter, in their respective editions of Horace, and also by Burmann. Wieland, however, has shown the inaccuracy of the scholiast, who, in making his accusation, confounds Varius the poet with Quintus Atius Varus, who put Cassius to death at Athens. (Val. Max., 1, 7, 7.—Schöll, Hist. Lit. Rom., vol. 1, p. 211.)

VARRO, I. M. TERENTIUS, a Roman consul of ignoble origin, colleague with L. Æmilius Paulus the year in which the battle of Canna was fought. His rashness and presumption hastened that memorable conflict. (Vid. Canna, and Hannibal.) After the battle he retreated to Venusia, and put himself in a posture for resisting the enemy till he could receive in

structions and re-enforcements from Rome. On his | cepts of agriculture which had been the result of long subsequent return to Rome he was honourably re- experience, and which need only reminiscence to inceived, notwithstanding his defeat; and the senate re- culcate. It was some time after the loss of his books, turned him thanks for his undaunted aspect after de- and when he had nearly reached the age of eighty, that feat, and for not having despaired of the common- Varro composed the work on husbandry, as he himself wealth. (Liv., 22, 25, seqq.-Id., 22, 41, seqq. testifies in the introduction. "Varro," observes MarId., 22, 61, seqq.) He was afterward appointed, as tyn, "writes more like a scholar than a man practicalproconsul, to defend Picenum, and raise levies there-ly acquainted with agricultural pursuits." This work, in; and his proconsular authority was continued to him together with that de Lingua Latina, are the only two year after year. He appears to have filled, at a later of Varro's productions that have reached us; and the period, the office of ambassador to Philip, as well as latter is incomplete. It is on account of this philoloother public employments. (Liv., 23, 32. — Id., 25, gical production that Aulus Gellius ranks him among 6.-ld., 30, 26, &c.)-II. A Latin writer, celebrated the grammarians, who form a numerous and important for his great learning. He is said to have written no class in the history of Latin literature. This work less than 500 different volumes, which are all now originally consisted of twenty-four books, and was dilost except a treatise de Re Rustica, and part of an- vided into three great parts. The first six books were other de Lingua Latina, dedicated to the orator Ci-devoted to etymological researches. The second dicero. He was born in the 637th year of Rome, and vision, which extended from the commencement of the was descended of an ancient senatorial family. It seventh to the end of the twelfth book, comprehended is probable that his youth, and even the greater part the accidents of verbs, and the different changes which of his manhood, were spent in literary pursuits, and in they undergo from declension, conjugation, and comthe acquisition of that stupendous knowledge which parison. The author admits of but two kinds of has procured him the appellation of "the most learned words, nouns and verbs, to which he refers all the other of the Romans." In A.U.C. 686 he served under parts of speech. He distinguishes also two sorts of Pompey in his war against the pirates, in which he declension, of which he calls the one arbitrary, and commanded the Greek ships. To the fortunes of that the other natural or necessary. With the ninth book commander he continued firmly attached, and was ap- terminates the fragment we possess of Varro's treatise. pointed one of his lieutenants in Spain, along with The third part of the work, which contained twelve Afranius and Petreius, at the commencement of the books, treated of syntax. It also contained a sort of war with Cæsar. Hispania Ulterior was especially glossary, which explained the true meaning of Latin confided to his protection, and two legions were placed terms. This may be considered as one of the chief under his command. After the surrender of his col- works of Varro, and was certainly a laborious and inleagues in Hither Spain, Cæsar proceeded in person genious production; but the author is evidently too against him. Varro appears to have been little quali- fond of deriving words from the ancient dialects of fied to cope with such an adversary. One of the le- Italy instead of recurring to the Greek, which, after gions deserted before his own eyes; and his retreat to the capture of Tarentum, became a great source of Cadiz, where he had meant to retire, having been cut Latin terms. There was also a distinct treatise, de off, he surrendered at discretion with the other, in the Sermone Latino, addressed to Marcellus, of which a vicinity of Corduba. From that period he despaired of very few fragments are preserved by Aulus Gellius. the salvation of the republic, and, receiving his free- The critical works of Varro were also numerous, but dom from Cæsar, he proceeded to Dyrrhachium, to give almost nothing is known of their contents. His mythPompey a detail of what had passed. This latter ological or theological productions were much studied, place he left almost immediately thereafter for Rome. and very frequently cited by the ancient fathers, parAfter his return to Italy, he withdrew from all politi- ticularly by St. Augustine and Lactantius. This part cal concerns, and indulged himself, during the remain- of his works chiefly contributed to the splendid repuder of his life, in the enjoyment of literary leisure. tation of Varro, and was extant as late as the beginThe only service which he performed for Cæsar was ning of the 14th century. Petrarch had seen it in his that of arranging the books which the dictator had youth. It subsequently, however, disappeared. In himself procured, or which had been acquired by history Varro was also conspicuous, and Plutarch, in those who had preceded him in the management of his life of Romulus, speaks of him as a man of all the public affairs. He lived, during the reign of Cæsar, Romans most versed in this department of knowledge. in habits of the closest intimacy with Cicero. The The philosophical writings of Varro are not numerous. greater part of his time was passed at the various His chief work of this description, entitled de Philo villas which he possessed in Italy. After the assassi-sophia liber, appears to have been very comprehensive. nation of Cæsar, Varro's principal villa, situate near the St. Augustine informs us that Varro examined in it all town of Casinum, in the territory of the Volsci, was the various sects of philosophers, of which he enumer forcibly seized by Marc Antony, along with almost all ated upward of 280. The sect of the Old Academy his wealth. Nor was this all. His name was also was that which he himself followed, and its tenets he placed in the list of the proscribed, although he was at maintained in opposition to all others. Varro derived the advanced age of 70 years. His friends, however, much notoriety from his satirical compositions. His secreted him, and he remained in a place of safety Tricarenus or Tricipitina was a satiric history of the until a special edict was passed by the consul, M. Plan- triumvirate of Cæsar, Pompey, and Crassus. Much cus, under the triumviral seal, excepting him and Mes-pleasantry and sarcasm were also interspersed in his sala Corvinus from the general slaughter. But, though books, entitled Legistorici; but his most celebrated Varro thus escaped, he was unable to save his library, production in that line was the satire which he himself which was placed in the garden of one of his villas, entitled Menippean. It was so called from the cynic and fell into the hands of an illiterate soldiery. After Menippus of Gadara, who was in the habit of expressthe battle of Actium, Varro resided at Rome until his ing himself jocularly upon the most grave and impordecease, which happened A.U.C. 727, when he was tant subjects. The appellation of Menippean was 90 years of age. His wealth was restored by Augus- given to his satires by Varro, because he imitated the tus, but his books could not be supplied. It is not philosopher's general style of humour. In its external improbable that the loss of his books, which impeded form it appears to have been a sort of literary anomaly. the prosecution of his studies, and prevented the com- Greek words and phrases were interspersed with Latposition of such works as may have required reference in; prose was mingled with verses of various meas and consultation, may have induced Varro to employ ures; and pleasantry with serious remark. Many fragthe remaining part of his life in delivering those pre-ments of this Menippean satire remain, but they are

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