SAMNIUM, I. a region of Italy, inhabited by the Samnites. (Vid. Samnites.)-II. A city of Samnium. It was long a matter of great doubt with antiquaries and geographers, whether we could admit the exist ence of a city called Samnium in the province of the same name, as the evidence of this fact rested only on

more uncertain testimony of Paulus Diaconus. (Ra. Lang., 2, 20.) But it seemed to acquire additional confirmation from an inscription discovered in the tomb of the Scipios, in which the name of Samnium occurs as that of a town taken by Scipio Barbatus; nor can farther evidence be required on this point, after the proofs adduced by Romanelli from old ecclesiastical chronicles, which speak of a town named Sampia Samne, on the site now called Cerro, near the source of the Vulturnus. (Cramer's Anc. Italy, vol. 2, p.

ambitious and rising nation, rendered confident by their | that they even invited Mithradates, king of Pontus, to successes over the Tuscans and the Oscans of Cam-join his forces to those of the confederates in Italy. pania; and formidable not only from their own re- (Diod., Excerpt., 37.) Even though deserted by their sources, but also from the ties of consanguinity which allies and left to their own resources, they still conconnected them with the Frentani, Vestini, Peligni, and tinued in arms till the fortune of Sylla and the Romans other hardy tribes of Central Italy. The rich and fer- prevailed, and they ceased to exist as a nation. It tile territory of Campania was then the nominal object was not till he had achieved the total destruction of of the contest which ensued, but in reality they fought the last Sampite army, at the very gates of Rome, that for the dominion of Italy, and consequently that of the Sylla at length felt assured of permanent success, and world; which was at stake so long as the issue of the ventured to assume the title of Felix. His fear of the war was doubtful. Livy seems to have formed a just Samnite name, however, led him farther to persecute idea of the importance of that struggle, and the fierce that unhappy people, thousands of whom were butch obstinacy with which it was carried on, when he pauses ered at his command, and the rest proscribed and han in the midst of his narrative, in order to point out the ished. He was said, indeed, to have declared, that unwearied constancy with which the Samnites, though Rome would enjoy no rest so long as a number of so often defeated, renewed their efforts, if not for em- Samnites could be collected together. (Strabo, 249, pire, at least for freedom and independence (10, 32). |—Flor., 3, 21.—-Vell. Paterc., 2, 26.—Liv., Epit., But when that historian recounts an endless succession 88.-Plut., Vit. Syll.-Cramer's Anc. Italy, vol 2, of reverses sustained by this nation, attended with p. 221, seqq.) losses which must have quickly drained a far greater population, it is impossible to avoid suspecting him of considerable exaggeration and repetition; especially as several campaigns are mentioned without a single distinct fact or topographical mark to give reality and an appearance of truth to the narrative. Nor is Livy always careful to point out the danger which not un-an obscure passage of Florus (1, 16), and the stall frequently threatened Rome on the part of these formidable adversaries. It is true that he relates with great beauty and force of description the disaster which befell the Roman arms at the defiles of Caudium; but has he been equally explicit in laying before his readers the consequences of that event, which not only opened to the victorious Samnites the gates of several Volscian cities, but exposed a great portion of Latium to be ravaged by their troops, and brought them nearly to the gates of Rome? (Liv., 9, 12.Compare Strabo, 232, 249.) In fact, though often at-227.) tacked in their own territory, we as often find the Samnite legions opposed to their inveterate foes in Apulia, in the territories of the Volsci and Hernici, and even in those of the Umbrians and Etruscans. (Liv., 10.) Admirably trained and disciplined, they executed the orders of their commanders with the greatest alacrity and promptitude; and such was the warlike spirit of the whole population, that they not unfrequently brought into the field 80,000 foot and 8000 horse. (Strabo, 259.) A victory over such a foe might well deserve the honours of a triumph; and when the Romans had at length, by repeated successes, established their superiority, they could then justly lay claim to the title of the first troops in the world. But though the Samnites were often overmatched and finally crushed by the superior conduct and power of the Romans, it is evident that the spirit of independence still breathed strong in their hearts, and waited but for an opportunity to display itself. Thus, when Pyrrhus raised his standard in the plains of Apulia, the Samnite bands swelled his ranks, and seemed rather to strengthen the forces of that prince than to derive assistance from his army. Nor did they neglect the occasion which presented itself, on the appearance of Hannibal in their country, for shaking off the Roman yoke, but voluntarily offered to join him in the field against the common enemy. (Liv., 23, 42.) Rome had already triumphed over Carthage, Macedon, and Antiochus, and was regarded as mistress of the world, when a greater danger than any she had before encountered threatened her dominion in Italy, and shook the very seat of her power. This was the breaking out of the Social war, which afforded the most convincing proof that the Samnite people were not yet conquered, in that bloody contest which, in the space of a few years, is said to have occasioned the loss of 300,000 lives. (Vell. Paterc., 2, 15.) This people formed the chief strength and nerve of the coalition: such was their determined enmity against the Romans,

SAMMONIUM OF SALMONE, as we find it written in the Acts of the Apostles (27, 7), a promontory of Crete, forming the extreme point of the island towards the coast. (Dionys. Perieg., 109.) Strabo says faces the Isle of Rhodes and Egypt; but his assertion that it is nearly in the same latitude with the Promon tory of Sunium is erroneous (Strab., 474), since, at cording to the best maps, Cape Salomone, by which name it is now distinguished, is more than two degrees to the east of the Attic headland. Mannert has endeavoured to prove that Cape Sidero or Sunio, as it is sometimes called, is the Sammonium of the ancients; but his reasons are certainly not conclusive. The very fact, indeed, of the Periplus allowing 120 stadia from the Dionysiades Insula to the Sammonian Promontory is decisive against him; as that distance agrees per fectly with Cape Salomone, whereas Cape Sidero is only fifty stadia at most from those islands. (Cr mer's Anc. Greece, vol. 3, p. 371.—Mannert, Geogra vol. 8, p. 706.)

SAMOS, an island of the Ægean, lying off the lower part of the coast of Ionia, and nearly opposite the Trogilian Promontory. The intervening strait was no more than seven stadia in the narrowest part. (Stra 637.) The first inhabitants were Carians and Leleges, whose king Ancæus, according to the poet Asins, cited by Pausanias, married Samia, daughter of the Mæander. The first Ionian colony came into the isl and from Epidaurus, having been expelled from the latter quarter by the Argives. The leader of this col ony was Procles, a descendant of Ion. Under his son Leogoras, the settlement was invaded by the Ephe sians, under the pretext that Leogoras had sided with the Carians against Ephesus. The colony being ex pelled from Samos, retired for a time to Anea in Csria, whence they again invaded the island, and finally expelled the Ephesians. Samos is early distinguished in the maritime annals of Greece, from the naval a cendancy it acquired in the time of Polycrates. (Val

from a distant fountain. Another was a mole, made to add security to the harbour; its depth was twenty fathoms, and its length more than two stadia. (Herod., 3, 60.)-The circuit of this celebrated island, which retains its ancient name, is 600 stadia, according to Strabo. Agathemerus reckons 630. Pliny, however, 87 miles, which make upward of 700 stadia. (Plin., 5, 31.) It yielded almost every kind of produce, with the exception of wine, in such abundance, that a proverbial expression, used by Menander, was applied to it, pépeɩ kaì ópvíðwv yáλa. (Strab., 637.)

Polycrates.) After the death of this ruler, the govern- | the several chapels adjoining. The outside was equalment was held for some time by Mæandrius, his sec-ly decorated with beautiful statues by the most celeretary; but he was expelled by the troops of Darius,brated sculptors. Besides this great temple, Herodowho placed on the throne Syloson, the brother of Po- tus describes two other works of the Samians which lycrates, on account of some service he had rendered were most worthy of admiration one was a tunnel him in Egypt, when as yet he was but a private per-carried through a mountain for the length of seven son. (Herod., 3, 140.) Strabo reports, that the yoke stadia, for the purpose of conveying water to the city of this new tyrant pressed more heavily on the Samians than that of Polycrates, and that, in consequence, the island became nearly deserted; whence arose the proverb, "EKηTI Evλooŵvtos εvpvxwpin. (Strab., 638. -Compare Heraclid., Pont., p. 211.) From Herodotus, however, we learn, that the Samians took an active part in the Ionian revolt, and furnished sixty ships to the fleet assembled at Lade; but, by the intrigues of Eaces, son of Syloson, who had been deposed by Aristagoras, and consequently favoured the Persian arms, the greater part of their squadron deserted the confederacy in the battle that ensued, and thus con- The city of Samos was situate exactly opposite the tributed greatly to the defeat of the allies. (Herod., Trogilian Promontory and Mount Mycale. The port 6, 8, seqq.) On learning the result of the battle, many was secure and convenient for ships, and the town, for of the Samians determined to quit the island rather the most part, stood in a plain, rising gradually from than submit to the Persian yoke, or that of a tyrant the sea towards a hill situate at some distance from imposed by them. They accordingly embarked on it. The citadel, built by Polycrates, was called Astyboard their ships, and sailed for Sicily, where they palaa. (Steph. Byz., s. v. 'Aoтvñáλαia. - Cramer's first occupied Calacte, and soon after, with the assist- Asia Minor, vol. 1, p. 402, seqq.) Dr. Clarke has ance of Anaxilas, tyrant of Rhegium, the important the following remarks concerning this island: "As town and harbour of Zancle. Eaces was replaced on we sailed to the northward of the island of Patmos, the throne of Samos, and, out of consideration for his we were surprised to see Samos so distinctly in view. services, the town and its temples were spared. After It is hardly possible that the relative situation of Sathe battle of Salamis, the Samians secretly sent a dep-mos and Patmos can be accurately laid down in utation to the Greek fleet stationed at Delos, to urge D'Anville's, or any more recent chart; for, keeping them to liberate Ionia, they being at that time gov- up to windward, we found ourselves to be so close erned by a tyrant named Theomestor, appointed by under Samos, that we had a clear view both of the the Persian king. (Herod., 9, 90.) In consequence island and of the town. This island, the most conof this invitation, Leotychidas, the Spartan command-spicuous object, not only of the Ionian Sea, but of all er, advanced with his fleet to the coast of Ionia, and the Egean, is less visited, and, of course, less known gained the important victory of Mycale. The Sami- than any other; it is one of the largest and most conans having regained their independence, joined, to- siderable of them all; and so near to the mainland, gether with the other Ionian states, the Grecian con- that it has been affirmed persons upon the opposite federacy, and with them passed under the protection, coasts may hear each other speak. Its surprising eleor, rather, the dominion of Athens. The latter power, vation and relative position with regard to the lower however, having attempted to change the constitution islands of Fuorni and Nicaria make it a landmark all of the island to a democracy, had nearly been expelled over the Archipelago. According to Constantine Porby the oligarchical party, aided by Pissuthnes, satrapphyrogenitus, any very lofty place was called Samos. of Sardis. Being overpowered, however, finally by the overwhelming force brought against them by the Athenians under Pericles, the Samians were compelled to destroy their fortifications, give up their ships, deliver hostages, and pay the expense of the war by SAMOSATA (Tà Lauóoara, but in Ammianus Marinstalments. This occurred a few years before the cellinus, 14, 8, Samosata, -a), a city of Syria, the breaking out of the Peloponnesian war. (Thucyd., 1, capital of the province of Commagene, and the resi115, seqq.) After this we hear little of Samos till dence of a petty dynasty. (Amm. Marcell., 18, 4.) the end of the Sicilian expedition, when the maritime It was not only a strong city itself, but had also a war was transferred to the Ionian coast and islands. strong citadel, and in its neighbourhood was one of the At this time Samos became the great point d'appui of ordinary passages of the Euphrates, on the western the Athenian fleet, which was stationed there for the bank of which river Samosata was situated. Samosdefence of the colonies and subject states; and there ata was the birthplace of Lucian. The modern name is little doubt that the power of Athens was alone pre-is Somaisath or Seempsat. (Abulfeda, Tab. Syr., p. served at this time by means of that island. We learn from Polybius (5, 35, 11), that, after the death of Alexander, Šamos became for a time subject to the kings of Egypt. Subsequently it fell into the hands of Antiochus, and, on his defeat, into those of the RoIt lost the last shadow of republican freedom under the Emperor Vespasian, A.C. 70.-The temple and worship of Juno contributed not a little to the fame and affluence of Samos. Pausanias asserts that this edifice was of very great antiquity; this, he says, was apparent from the statue of the goddess, which was of wood, and the work of Smilis, an artist contemporary with Dædalus. (Pausan., 7, 4.—Callim., Epigr., ap. Euseb., Præp. Evang.,3,8.-Clem. Alex., Protr., p. 30.) In Strabo's time, this temple was adorned with a profusion of the finest works of art, especially paintings, both in the nave of the building and

mans.

The name of Karabárn was anciently given to that terrible rock which forms the cape and precipice upon its western side, as collecting the clouds and generating thunder." (Travels, vol. 6, p. 67, Lond. ed.)

244.-Mannert, Geogr., vol. 6, pt. 1, p. 491.)

SAMOTHRACE, an island in the Ægean, off the coast of Thrace. According to Pliny (4, 12), it lay opposite to the mouth of the Hebrus, and was twenty-eight miles from the coast of Thrace, and sixty-two from Thasos. The same authority makes it thirty-two miles in circuit. Though insignificant in itself, considerable celebrity attaches to it from the mysteries of Cybele and her Corybantes, which are said by some to have originated there, and to have been disseminated thence over Asia Minor and different parts of Greece.-It was said that Dardanus, the son of Jupiter and Electra, who was the imputed founder of Troy, had long dwelt in Samothrace before he passed over into Asia; and it is affirmed, that he first introduced into his new kingdom the mysteries practised in the island from which he had migrated (Strabo, 331),

ans.

and which, by some writers, was from that circum-only so many parts of one main production. Accardstance named Dardania. (Callim., ap. Plin., 4, 12.) ing to Porphyry, the Phoenician history of Sanchonis Samothrace was also famous for the worship of the thon was divided into eight books, while we learn, on Cabiri, with which these mysteries were intimately the other hand, from Eusebius, that the version of connected. (Vid. Cabiri.)-Various are the names Philo consisted of nine. Hence it has been supposed which this island is said to have borne at different pe- that the Greek translator had united two works, and riods. It was called Dardania, as we have already that thus the treatise on the physical system of Her seen; also Electris, Melite, Leucosia (Strabo, 472.- mes, or that on Egyptian theology, became a kind of Schol. in Apoll. Rhod., 1, 917), and was said to have introduction to the Phoenician History, and increased been named Samothrace (Thracian Samos) by a col- the number of books in the latter by one. And it has ony from the Ionian Samos, though Strabo conceives been farther supposed that the two titles of "Egyptian this assertion to have been an invention of the Sami- Theology" and "Physical System of Hermes" belongHe deduces the name either from the word ed both to one and the same work. (Compare BZúuos, which implies an elevated spot, or from the chart, Geogr. Sacr., 2, 17.)-The long interval of Saii, a Thracian people, who at an early period were time between Sanchoniathon and his translator renin possession of the island. (Strabo, 457.) Homer, ders it extremely probable that the latter must often in his frequent allusion to it, sometimes calls it sim- have erred in rendering into Greek the ideas of his ply Samos (I., 24, 78.—Il., 24, 753); at other times Phoenician original; and we may suppose, too, that the Thracian Samos. (Il., 13, 12.)-The Samothra- occasionally Philo may have been tempted to substitute cians joined the Persian fleet in the expedition of some of his own. And yet, at the same time, the Xerxes; and one of their vessels distinguished itself fragments of Sanchoniathon contain so many things erin the battle of Salamis. (Herod., 8, 90.) Perseus, idently of Oriental origin, that it is extremely difficult after the battle of Pydna, took refuge in Samothrace, to believe they were forged by Philo. A difference and was there seized by the Romans when preparing of opinion, however, ever has existed, and will conto escape from Demetrium, a small harbour near one tinue to exist on this head. Grotius and other writers of the promontories of the island. On this occasion, highly extol the fragments in question, on account of Livy asserts that the chief magistrate of Samothrace the agreement which they discover between them and was dignified with the title of king (45, 6). Stephanus the books of the Old Testament. Cumberland and Byzantinus informs us there was a town of the same Meiners, on the other hand, only see in them an name with the island. This island was reduced, in tempt to prop up the religious system of the Phan the reign of Vespasian, along with the other isles of cians and Egyptians, and discover in them no other the gean, to the form of a province. It is now Sam- principle but those of the Porch concealed under Preothraki. (Cramer's Anc. Greece, vol. 1, p. 335.) nician names. (Cumberland, Sanchoniathon's Phant cian Hist., Lond., 1720, 8vo.- Meiners' Hist. Doctring de Vero Deo, vol. 1, p. 63.-Schöll, Hist. Lat. Gree vol. 4, p. 115.)—In 1836 a work appeared in Germany with the following title: "Sanchoniathons Urgeschock te der Phönizier in einem Auszuge aus der weder aufgefundenen Handschrift von Philos vollständiger Uebersetzung. Nebst Bemerkungen von Fr. Wage feld. Mit einem Vorworte vom Dr. G. F. Gratefend Hanover, 1836" (Sanchoniathon's early History of the Phoenicians, condensed from the lately-found man uscript of Philo's complete translation of that work. With annotations by Fr. Wagenfeld, and a preface by Dr. G. F. Grotefend). This was followed, in 1837, by another work, purporting to be the Greek version Philo itself, with a Latin translation by Wagenfeld: " Sanchoniathonis Historiarum Phenicia libros no vem, Græce versos a Philone Byblio, edidit, Latinaque versione donavit F. Wagenfeld, Brema, 1837."The whole is a mere forgery, very clumsily executed: and the imposture has been very ably exposed in the 37th and 39th numbers of the Foreign Quarterly Re

SANA, a town of Macedonia, on the Sinus Singiticus, and situated on a neck of land connecting Athos with the continent. On the opposite side was Acanthus, and between the two places was cut the canal of Xerxes. (Vid. Acanthus.)

SANCHONIATHON, a Phoenician author, who, if the fragments of his works that have reached us be genuine, and if such a person ever existed, must be regarded as the most ancient writer of whom we have any knowledge after Moses. His father's name was Thabion, and he himself was chief hierophant of the Phoenicians. According to some, he was a native of Berytus, but Athenæus (3, 37) and Suidas make him a Tyrian. As to the period when he flourished, all is uncertain. Some accounts carry him back to the era of Semiramis, others assign him to the period of the Trojan war. St. Martin, however, endeavours to prove that he was a contemporary of Gideon, the judge of Israel, and flourished during the fourteenth century before the Christian era. (Biographie Univ., vol. 40, p. 305, seqq.) The titles of the three principal works of this writer are as follows : 1. Περὶ τῆς Ἑρμοῦ φυ- - view. olohoyías ("Of the Physical System of Hermes"). SANCUS, a deity of the Sabines, according to some, 2. AlyvпTiaкn Oεohoyía ("Egyptian Theology").-3. identical with Hercules. The name is said to have Polvika ("Phænician History"), cited also under signified "heaven" in the Sabine tongue. (Lydde other titles, one of which is ovikov Ocohoyia ("The-Mens., p. 107 ed. Schow., p. 250 ed. Rather.) Sa ology of the Phanicians").—All these works were written in Phoenician, and the preceding are their titles in Greek. The history was translated into the Greek language by Herennius Philo, a native of Byblus, who lived in the second century of our era. It is from this translation that we obtain all the fragments of Sanchoniathon that have reached our times. Philo had divided his translation into nine books, of which

Porphyry made use in his diatribe against the Christians. It is from the fourth book of this last work that Eusebius took, for an end directly opposite to this, the passages that have come down to us. (Prop. Evang., 1, p. 31.) And thus we have these documents relative to the mythology and history of the Phoenicians from the fourth hand-St. Martin and others are inclined to the opinion that the three works mentioned above as having been written by Sanchoniathon, were

cus at first view would seem to have some connexion in form with the Sandacus of Cilicia and the Sandon of Lydia. Another name for this deity was Semo, which recalls the Sem or Som of Egypt. (Creuzer's Symbolik, par Guigniaut, vol. 3, p. 493.)

SANDALIOTIS, a name given to Sardinia from its resemblance to a sandal. (Vid. Ichnusa.)

SANDROCOTTUS, an Indian of mean origin, who, bav ing on one occasion been guilty of insolent conduct towards Alexander, was ordered by that monarch to be seized and put to death. He escaped, however, by a rapid flight, and at length dropped down completely exhausted. As he slept on the ground, a lion of i mense size came up to him, licked the perspiration from his face, and, having awakened him, fawned then left him. The singular tameness of the animal appeared preternatural to Sandrocottus, and was coll

upon

and

strued by him into an omen of future success. Having collected, therefore, a band of robbers, and having roused the people of India to a change of affairs, he finally attained to sovereign power, and made himself master of a part of the country which had been previously in the hands of Seleucus. It is said, that, while waging war, and before coming to the throne, a wild elephant of very large size approached him on one occasion, and with the greatest docility suffered him to mount on its back, and used after this to bear him into the fight. (Justin, 15, 4.) The Sandrocottus of the Greeks is thought to be the same with the Chandragoupta of the Hindu writers. And Chandragoupta (i. e., "saved the moon") is regarded by many as a mere epithet or surname of the Hindu monarch Vischarada. (De Marles, Hist. de l'Inde, vol. 3, p. 255.-Id. ib., vol. 1, p. 420.)

SANGARIUS, a river of Asia Minor, rising near a place called Sangia (Eayyía), in Mount Adoreus, a branch of Mount Dindymus, in Galatia, and falling into the Euxine on the coast of Bithynia. Its source was 150 stadia from Pessinus. According to Strabo (543), it formed the true eastern boundary of Bithynia, and his account coincides in this with that of the earlier writers. (Scylax, p. 34.—Apoll. Rhod., 2, 724.) The Bithynian kings, however, gradually extended their dominions farther to the east, and the Romans gave the country a still farther enlargement on this side. This river is called Sangaris by Constantine Porphyrogenitus (1, 5), and Sagaris by Ovid (ep. e Pont., 4, 10). The modern name is the Sakaria. (Mannert's Geogr., vol. 6, pt. 3, p. 607.)

SANNYRION, an Athenian comic poet, contemporary with Aristophanes. Little is known of him. One of his plays, entitled Aaván (Danaë), in which he burlesqued a verse of the Orestes of Euripides (Schol. ad Aristoph., Ran., p. 142. - Schol. ad Eurip., Orest., 279), appears to have been acted about 407 B.C. (Clinton, Fast. Hellen., p. 81.) Another comedy of his, entitled Téλoç (“Laughter”), is also mentioned. (Clinton, Fast. Hellen., p. 91.-Bentley's Phalaris, vol. 1, p. 261, ed. Dyce.)

SANTONES, a people of Gallia Aquitanica, north of the mouth of the Garumna, on the coast. Their capital was Mediolanum Santonum, now Saintes. (Plin., 4, 19.-Cas., B. G., 1, 10.-Id. ibid., 3, 11.)

taking a war against the Romans, he attempted to enlarge his dominions, and to add the provinces on the west of the Euphrates to his empire. Julian marched against him, but fell by a mortal wound. Jovian, who succeeded Julian, made peace with Sapor; but the monarch, always restless and indefatigable, renewed hostilities, invaded Armenia, and defeated the Emperor Valens. Sapor died A.D. 380, after a reign of 70 years, in which he had often been the sport of fortune. He was succeeded by Artaxerxes, and Artaxerxes by Sapor III., a prince who died after a reign of five years, A.D. 389, in the age of Theodosius the Great.

SAPPHO, I. a celebrated poetess, a native of Mytilene in the island of Lesbos, and nearly contemporaneous with her countryman Alcæus, although she must have been younger, since she was still alive in 568 B.C. About 596 B.C. she sailed from Mytilene in order to take refuge in Sicily. (Marm. Par., ep. 36.) The cause of her flight appears to have been a political one, and she must at that time have been in the bloom of her life. At a much later period she produced the ode mentioned by Herodotus (2, 135), in which she reproaches her brother Charaxus for having purchased Rhodopis, and for having been induced by his love to emancipate her. (Müller, Hist. Grec. Liter., p. 172) Of all the females that ever cultivated the poetic art, Sappho was certainly the most eminent, and ancient Greece fully testified its high sense of her powers by bestowing on her the appellation of the "Tenth Muse." How great, indeed, was Sappho's fame among the Greeks, and how rapidly it spread throughout Greece itself, may be seen in the history of Solon, who was contemporary with the Lesbian poetess. Hearing his nephew recite one of her poems, he is said to have exclaimed that he would not willingly die till he had learned it by heart. (Stobaus, Serm., 29, 28.) Indeed, the whole voice of antiquity has declared that the poetry of Sappho was unrivalled in grace and sweetness. This decision has been confirmed by posterity, though we have only a few verses remaining of her poetic effusions; for these are of a high character, and stamped with the true impress of genius.-The history of Sappho is involved in great uncertainty. It is known that, as we have already stated, she was born at Mytilene, in the island of Lesbos; but if we subject to a rigorous criticism the opinion so generally received in relation to her amorous propensities, and the misfortunes attendant upon these, we will come to the conclusion that the story of her passion for Phaon and its tragical consequences is a SAPOR, I. a king of Persia, who succeeded his fa- mere fiction. It is certain that Sappho, in her odes, ther, Artaxerxes, about the 238th year of the Christian made frequent mention of a youth, to whom she gave era. Naturally fierce and ambitious, Sapor wished to her whole heart, while he requited her passion with increase his paternal dominions by conquest; and, as cold indifference. But there is no trace whatever of the indolence of the emperors of Rome seemed favour- her having named the object of her passion, or sought able to his views, he laid waste the provinces of Meso- to win his favour by her beautiful verses. The prepotamia, Syria, and Cilicia; and he might have be- tended name of this youth, Phaon, although frequentcome master of all Asia if Odenatus had not stopped ly mentioned in the Attic comedies, appears not to his progress. If Gordian attempted to repel him, his have occurred in the poetry of Sappho. If Phaon had efforts were weak, and Philip, who succeeded him on been named in her verses, the opinion could not have the imperial throne, bought the peace of Sapor with arisen that it was the courtesan Sappho, and not the money. Valerian, who was afterward invested with poetess, who was in love with Phaon. (Athenæus, the purple, marched against the Persian monarch, but 13, p. 596, c.) Moreover, the marvellous stories of was defeated and taken prisoner. Odenatus no soon- the beauty of Phaon have manifestly been borrowed er heard that the Roman emperor was a captive in from the myth of Adonis. (Müller, Hist. Gr. Lit., the hands of Sapor, than he attempted to release him p. 174.) According to the ordinary account, Sappho, by force of arms. The forces of Persia were cut to despised by Phaon, took the leap from the Leucadian pieces, the wives and treasures of the monarch fell rock, in the hope of finding a cure for the pangs of uninto the hands of the conqueror, and Odenatus pene-requited love. But even this is rather a poetical imtrated, with little opposition, into the very heart of the age than a real event in the life of Sappho. The Leukingdom. Sapor, soon after this defeat, was assassi-cadian leap was a religious rite, belonging to the exnated by his subjects, A.D. 273, after a reign of 32 years. He was succeeded by his son, called Hormisdas.-II. The second of that name, succeeded his father Hormisdas on the throne of Persia. He was as great as his ancestor of the same name, and by under

SAPIS, a river of Cisalpine Gaul, rising in Umbria, and falling into the Hadriatic below Ravenna. It is now the Savio or Alps. It was also called Isapis. (Plin., 3, 15.-Sil. Ital., 8, 449.-Lucan., 2, 405.)

piatory festivals of Apollo, which were celebrated in this as in other parts of Greece. At appointed times, criminals, selected as expiatory victims, were thrown from the high overhanging rock into the sea: they were, however, sometimes caught at the bottom, and,

if saved, were sent away from Leucadia. (Concern- Sappho did not derogate from her moral worth, when ing the connexion of this custom with the worship of he calls her "violet-crowned, pure, sweetly-smiling Apollo, see Müller's Dorians, b. 1, ch. 11, ◊ 10.) Sappho." (Alcaus, fragm., 38, ed. Blomf)—Sappho's This custom was applied in various ways by the poets misfortunes arose not, therefore, from disappointed of the time to the description of lovers. Stesichorus, love; they had, on the contrary, a political origin, and in his poetical novel named Calyce, spoke of the love terminated in exile. It is probable that, being drawn of a virtuous maiden for a youth who despised her into a conspiracy against Pittacus, tyrant of Mytilene, passion; and, in despair, she threw herself from the by the persuasions of Alcæus, she was banished from Leucadian rock. The effect of the leap in the story Lesbos along with that poet and his partisans. (Marm, of Sappho (namely, the curing her of her intolerable Oxon., ep. 37.) She retired, as we have already repassion) must, therefore, have been unknown to Ste- marked, to Sicily.-We know nothing farther of the sichorus. Some years later, Anacreon says in an ode, life of Sappho. Her productions, which gained for 'Again casting myself from the Leucadian rock, I her so exalted a reputation, are almost equally unplunged into the gray sea, drunk with love" (ap. He known. All that has reached us consists of, 1. A phæst., p. 130). The poet can scarcely, by these beautiful Ode to Venus, in the Sapphic measure, prewords, be supposed to say that he cures himself of a served by Dionysius of Halicarnassus.-2. A second vehement passion, but rather means to describe the ode, in the same measure, still more beautiful, dedelicious intoxication of violent love. The story of scriptive of the tumultuous emotions of love, and preSappho's leap probably originated in some poetical im- served in part by Longinus.-3. Various fragments, ages and relations of this kind; a similar story is told all unfortunately very short, found in Aristotle, Ploof Venus in regard to her lament for Adonis. (Ptol., tarch, Athenæus, Stobæus, Hephæstion, Macrobius, Hephast., ap. Phot., cod., 191.-ed. Bekk., vol. 1, p. Eustathius, and others.-4. Three epigrams-Sap153.) Nevertheless, it is not unlikely that the leap pho also composed hymns to the gods, in which she from the Leucadian rock may really have been made, invoked them to come from their favourite abodes in in ancient times, by desperate and frantic persons. different countries; but there is little information exAnother proof of the fictitious character of the story is, tant respecting their contents.-The poems of Sappho that it leaves the principal point in uncertainty, name- are little susceptible of division into distinct classes. ly, whether Sappho survived the leap or perished in it. Hence the ancient critics divided them into books, (Müller, Hist. Gr. Lit., p. 175.)-It appears that merely according to the metre, the first containing the Sappho became united in marriage to an individual odes in the Sapphic measure, for the poetess enriched named Cercolas, and the fruit of this union was a the melody of the language by a lyric measure of the daughter, named Cleis (Kλɛiç), who is mentioned by most harmonious character, called after her own name; the poetess in one of her fragments. Having lost her a measure which Catullus and Horace afterward introhusband, Sappho turned her attention to literary pur- duced with so much success into the Latin tonguesuits, and inspired many of the Lesbian females with The best text of Sappho is that given by Blomfield, in a taste for similar occupations. She composed lyric the Museum Criticum (vol. 1, p. 3, segg.). The best pieces, of which she left nine books, elegies, hymns, and fullest edition, however, is that of Neue, Berol, &c. The admiration which these productions excited 1827, 4to. (Schöll, Hist. Lit. Gr., vol. 1, p. 205.— was universal; her contemporaries carried it to the Müller, Hist. Lit. Gr., p. 172.-Barnes, Vit. Anacr, highest pitch of enthusiasm, and saw in her a superior p. 29.-Bayle, Dict., s. v. Sappho.)-II. A native of being the Lesbians placed her image on their coins, Eresus, in the island of Lesbos, for a long time conas that of a divinity. Sappho had assembled around founded with Sappho of Mytilene. The distinction her a number of young females, natives of Lesbos, between the two has only been recently drawn, and whom she instructed in music and poetry. They re- the memory of the celebrated poetess has at last been vered her as their benefactress, and her attachment to freed from the dishonourable imputations which had them was of the most affectionate description. This been so long attached to it. An ancient medal, brought intimacy was made a pretext by the licentious spirit of from Greece in 1822, presents, along with the name later ages for the most dishonourable calumnies. An EAI (Sappho), a female head, with the letters expression in Horace ("mascula Sappho," Ep., 1, 19, EPECI (Eresi), the allusion being to the Lesbian city 28) has been thought to countenance this charge, but of Eresus, where the medal was struck. (Consu's De its meaning has been grossly misunderstood; and, Hauteroche, Notice sur la courtisane Sappho d'Eresus, what is still more to the purpose, it would appear that Paris, 1822.) This settles the question as to there the illustrious poetess has been ignorantly confounded having been two Sapphos, both natives of the same with a dissolute female of the same name, a native of island. The period when this second Sappho flour. Lesbos, though not of Mytilene. (Vid. Sappho II.) ished is far from being easy to determine. That she Indeed, as the Abbé Barthelemy has remarked, the ac- was a female of some celebrity appears evident from counts that have reached us respecting the licentious the inhabitants of Eresus having stamped her image character of Sappho, have come only from writers long on their coins; but, unfortunately, we have only a few subsequent to the age in which she lived. Sappho, words, scattered here and there in ancient authors, relthe favoured of the Muses, was, as we have just en-ative to this namesake of the Mytilenean Sappho. deavoured to show, never enamoured of Phaon, nor The first of these authors is the historian Nymphis, did she ever make the leap of Leucadia. Indeed, the cited by Athenæus (13, p. 596, c.), who speaks of severity with which Sappho censured her brother Cha- Sappho, a courtesan of Eresus, as having been enamraxus for his love for the courtesan Rhodopis, enables oured of Phaon (Καὶ ἡ ἐξ Ερέσου δέ τις ἑταῖρα Σαπο us to form some judgment of the principles by which φω, τοῦ καλοῦ Φάωνος ἐρασθεῖσα, περιβόητος ἦν, ὡς she guided her own conduct. For although, at the onσi Nuupis v Пɛpiñλ4 'Aoiaç).—The second sutime when she wrote this ode to him, the fire of youth- thority is Elian (Var. Hist., 12, 19), who remarks, ful passion had been quenched within her breast, yet" I learn, too, that there was also another Sappho in she never could have reproached her brother with his the island of Lesbos, a courtesan, not a poetess" (Пl love for a courtesan, if she had herself been a courte- θάνομαι δὲ, ὅτι καὶ ἑτέρα ἐν τῇ Λέσβῳ ἐγένετο Σατού, san in her youth; and Charaxus might have retaliated éraipa, ov πoinтpia).-A third authority is Surdas, upon her with additional strength. Besides, we may who distinguishes between Sappho the poetess, and plainly discern the feeling of unimpeached honour due Sappho who was enamoured of Phaon, and who leaped to a freeborn and well-educated maiden, in the verses from Leucate; only by some negligence or other he which refer to the relation of Alcæus and Sappho. makes the poetess a native of Eresus, and the other of Alcæus testifies that the attractions and loveliness of Mytilene. The fact of the existence of two Sapphos