this region. They knew the coast, however, only to the tenth degree of south latitude, that is, to the promontory of Prasum, which is probably the same with the modern Cape Del Gardo, as his city of Rapta would seem to be Melinda. From the promontory of Prasum, Ptolemy makes the African coast bend round to the east for the purpose of joining that of Kattigara. His island of Menuthias, placed by him near Cape Prasum, but which an ancient periplus brings near to Rapta, is Zanzibar, or one of the other islands off the coast of Zanguebar. Ptolemy's acquaintance with the eastern coast does not extend beyond the modern Madagascar.-After the decline of the commerce of Carthage and Gades, no new discoveries had been made on the

calculation, 180 degrees; and in this way he believed he had discovered the extent of one half of the globe. The fact, however, is, that he was acquainted with only 125 degrees. His error, consequently, is nearly a third, namely, one sixth by reason of the mistake he commits relative to the measurement of a degree as above mentioned, and about a sixth as the result of errors in geometric distances. With regard to latitudes, a large number of which were based on astronomical determinations, the errors committed by Ptolemy are very unimportant; and the latitude, for example, which he gives to the southern point of Spain is so exact, as to lead us to imagine that observations had been made in this quarter by some of his predecessors. Strabo had limited to 42 degrees the lati-western coast of Africa, and hence the knowledge of tude of the known part of the earth (situate between Ptolemy in this quarter was not extended beyond that the 12th and 54th degree of north latitude). Ptole- of his predecessors; he introduces, however, more of my, on the other hand, makes 80 degrees, from 16° method into the information obtained from Hanno and south latitude to 63° north; and yet he believed that Scylax.-Ptolemy is the first who indicates the true he knew only about a quarter more than the earlier figure of Spain, Gaul, and the southern part of Algeographers, because these allowed 700 stadia to a bion; but he gives an erroneous description of the degree, which makes nearly 30,000 stadia altogether; northern part of this island, which, according to him, whereas Ptolemy, admitting only 500 stadia, found extends towards the east. Ireland, the Ierne of Strathe sum total to be 40,000.-Marinus and Ptolemy bo, and the Juvernia of Ptolemy, ceases to be situated derived some information respecting the easternmost to the north of Albion, as Eratosthenes and Strabo parts of Asia from the Itineraries of a Macedonian] thought; it is placed by Ptolemy to the west, but its trader, who had sent his factors on overland journeys northern point is parallel to the northern extremity of from Mesopotamia, along Mount Taurus, through In- Albion. To the north of this latter island he places dia, and even to the distant capital of the Seres. the Orcades, and a little farther to the north (about These journeys must have been prosecuted very soon 63° N. L.), the isle of Thule, the northernmost exafter the time of Alexander the Great, under the first tremity of the geographical system of Ptolemy. This two monarchs of the dynasty of the Seleucida since Thule is probably Mainland, situate about 60° N., it is not probable that, after the defection of the Bac- the same that was seen by the Roman fleet under trians and Parthians, a route remained open through Agricola, covered with ice and eternal snow. (Tacit., these countries to the traffic of the Greeks. Ptolemy Vit. Agr., c. 10.)—The description which Ptolemy thus could hardly have gained much information re- gives of the shores of Germany as far as the Elbe, as specting these lands from the narratives of overland well as of Scandinavia, extends no farther than the travellers. The communication by sea, however, be- accounts already given by Pliny and Tacitus. He tween Egypt and India, became frequent in the time describes the Cimbric Chersonese, and the German of the Ptolemies. Strabo speaks of fleets that sailed coast of the Baltic as far as the Dwina, with considfor India, and, in the time of Pliny, the coast of the erable accuracy, but he is not aware that this sea is a country this side of the Ganges was perfectly well mediterranean one, for his Gulf of Veneda is only a known. The navigators of the West, however, did part of this sea, from Memel to Dantzic. The question not go beyond this stream. It was supposed that has been asked, By what chance Ptolemy was enabled from this point the shore of Asia bent directly to the to obtain more accurate notions respecting those counnorth, and joined the eastern extremity of Taurus. tries than those which Pliny and Tacitus possessed, At a later period navigators went beyond the mouths and that, too, although the principal depôt of amber, of the Ganges, and, to their great astonishment, found the well-known production of the shores of the Baltic, that the land redescended towards the south, and was in the capital of Italy? The answer is, that if formed a large gulf (Bay of Bengal-Sinus Gangeti- the amber was chiefly carried to Rome, the traffic was cus). They pushed their adventurous career still far- conducted by merchants from Alexandrea, and it was ther taking their departure from the southern part through them that Ptolemy obtained the materials for of the western peninsula of India, they crossed the this portion of his work.-In the last book of his geoggulf in a straight line, and reached the coast of Siam raphy, Ptolemy teaches the mode of preparing charts and the peninsula of Malacca; this last they called or maps. We here find the first principles of projecthe Golden Chersonese, a proof of the profitable trade tion; but the book itself has reached us in a very corwhich was there carried on by them. Having doubled rupt state through the fault of the copyists. The more the extremity of this second peninsula, they entered modern maps long preserved traces of those of Ptoleon a new gulf (that of Siam-Magnus Sinus). From my and his successors. The Caspian Sea, for examthe eastern coast of the Golden Chersonese they ple, retained the form traced for it by Ptolemy as late passed in a southern direction, and reached a large as the eighteenth century; for a part of the coasts of continent, on the shore of which was situate the city the Black Sea, and of Africa beyond Egypt, our maps of Kattigara. This country was probably the Isle of still conform to the general outline of Ptolemy, and Borneo. The discoverer of this country was called the substitution of modern for ancient names is the Alexander. (Ptol., Geogr., 2, 14.) Ptolemy, who, only difference. Such, at least, is the assertion of as well as this adventurer, believed that the coast was Mannert (Geogr., vol. 1, p. 191).-No good coma prolongation of that which formed the Gulf of Siam plete edition of Ptolemy's Geography has ever ap(the coast of Cambodia), founded thereon his hypoth-peared. One, however, has recently been commenced esis, that the Indian was a mediterranean sea. He supposed that, after Kattigara, the land extended from east to west as far as the southeast coast of Africa, with which it united, forming one common continent -Marinus and Ptolemy were well acquainted with the eastern coast of Africa, and mention is no longer made, in their pages, of the fabulous monsters which the credulity of a previous age had established as the dwellers of

in Germany, by Wilberg, of which the first fasciculus, containing the first book, has thus far appeared. Essendia, 1838, 4to. In 1475, Lichtenstein (Levilapis) printed at Cologne, in folio, the Latin translation of this work, made by Angelo, a Florentine scholar of the fifteenth century, or, rather, commenced by Chry solaras and finished by Angelo. It was revised, for the purposes of this publication, by Vadius and Picar

of Words"). It is properly the fragment merely of a larger work. Ptolemy was the author also of a Homeric Prosody, a treatise on metres, and a dissertation on Aristarchus's revision of Homer. The frag ment on "the Difference of Words" is given by Fabricius, Bibl. Gr., vol. 4, p. 515, of the old edition; vol. 6, p. 117, of the new.-XX. Surnamed Chennus, flourished under the emperors Trajan and HaPhotius has preserved for us some fragments

of his work, Περὶ τῆς εἰς πολυμαθίαν καινῆς ἱστο pias (“New History of varied Erudition"), in seven books. To give some idea of this compilation, we will mention some of the subjects of which it treats: the death of Protesilaus; that of Sophocles; that of Hercules; the history of Croesus; the death of Achil les; that of Laius; the history of Tiresias; the death of Adonis; the origin of several epithets given to the heroes of the Iliad, and to other personages of the fabulous times. Ptolemy also wrote a drama entitled the Sphinx. He dared even to enter the lists against Homer with a poem in twenty-four books or cantos, entitled 'Avoóunpos ("The Anti-Homer"). Gale has placed the fragments of Ptolemy Chennus in his Hu toria Poëtica Scriptores, p. 303, segg., and to the eighth chapter is prefixed a dissertation on this WTter. The fragments are also given in the edition of Conon and Parthenius by Teucher. (Schöll, Hist. Lit. Gr., vol. 5, p. 44.)

obliged to relinquish their dwellings, and disperse themselves about the country in different directions. The attempts of Justinian to obviate this evil proved unavailing. The ruins are called at the present day Ptolemata. A description of the remains of this ancient city is given by Captain Beechey and oth

dus. The translation of Angelo was reprinted, with corrections made from a manuscript of the Greek text, by Calderino, Roma, 1478, fol. Twenty-seven maps accompany this edition, which appears to have been printed by Arnold Pannartz. This is the second work, with a date, that is accompanied with engravings on copper. In 1482, Donis, a German monk, and a good astronomer for his time, gave a new edition to the world, printed by Holl, at Ulm, in folio. It has fewer mis-drian. takes in the figures than those which preceded it, but just as many in the names. Several editions followed, but all swarming with errors. The celebrated Pico de Mirandola sent to Essler, at Strasbourg, a Greek manuscript of Ptolemy's work, by the aid of which that scholar gave a new edition, not in the translation of Angelo, but in another, very literal and somewhat barbarous, by Philesius. Essler made many changes in this version, and, to justify himself, generally added the Greek term to the Latin. He placed in it 46 maps cut on wood. Brunet calls this edition one of little value; in this he is mistaken. The edition we have just spoken of was reprinted at Strasbourg in 1520, and also in 1522. A new translation, made by the celebrated Pirckheymer, appeared in 1525, from the Strasbourg press, fol. It contains fifty maps cut on wood. The first Greek edition was that of Erasmus, printed from a manuscript which Theobald Fettich, a physician, had sent him, and which issued from the press of Froben, at Bâle, 1533, in 4to. The PTOLEMAIS, I. a seaport town of Phoenicia. (Vid manuscript was a very good one, but, through the fault Ace.)--II. A city on the coast of Cyrenaica in Afof the printer, a great number of errors were allowed rica, and the port of Barce. It suffered so severe to creep in among the figures. Not having a suffi-ly from want of water, that the inhabitants were cient quantity of the peculiar type or mark which indicated, he employed in its place the letter 5, which signifies. He made use, also, of the same letter on many occasions to designate . The fraction is marked by yo, but the manuscript often places the o above the y, and in a smaller character. The compositor, not attending to this, contented himself with put-ers. (Modern Traveller, pt. 50, p. 114, seqq.)-III. ting in its place alone, which is equivalent to . A city of Egypt, in the northern part of Thebais, The confusion resulting from such a course is appa- northeast of Abydus. It rose in importance as the rent, and the only mode to remedy the evil is to have last-mentioned city declined, and eventually rivalled recourse to the Latin editions which appeared pre- Memphis in size. Ptolemaïs would seem to have vious to 1533. The Bâle edition was reprinted by been founded by one of the Ptolemies, or, at all events, Wechel, at Paris, 1546, 4to.-Michael Servetus (Vil-re-established by him on the site of some more ancient lanovanus) retouched the translation of Pirckheymer, af- city, as the Greek name, IIroheμais ʼn 'Equeiov (Pia ter a manuscript, and published it, with fifty maps cut on emaïs, the city of Hermes), would seem to indicate. wood, at Lyons, in 1530, and again, with corrections The city, therefore, was originally consecrated to the and additions, in the same city, in 1541. These two Egyptian Hermes. It appears to have received a se editions of Ptolemy play a conspicuous part in the vere blow to its prosperity, by reason of its resistance history of religious fanaticism; Calvin derived from to the Emperor Probus. The modern village of Men them one of his grounds of accusation against Serve- sich is in the immediate neighbourhood of Ptolemais. tus. He was charged with having added to the de- (Mannert, Geogr., vol. 10, pt. 1, p. 381, seqq.)—IV. scription that accompanies the map of Palestine, a Originally a small promontory, on the western coast of passage which contradicts what Moses says respecting the Sinus Arabicus. It was near the inland sea Mothe fertility of that country. The interpolated pas- noleus. A fortified port was established here by Esage does actually exist, but it was added by Phrisius, medes, a commander of Ptolemy Philadelphus; and the who took charge of the edition of 1522.-The last im- spot was selected on account of the large forest in the pression of the Greek text was in 1618 and 1619, in vicinity, which furnished valuable naval timber for the 2 vols. 4to, from the Amsterdam press, by Bertius. fleets of the Ptolemies. In this forest, also, wild eleMany faults of the previous editions are corrected in phants abounded; and, as Ptolemy wanted these anithis one, by the aid of a Heidelberg manuscript, but the mals for his armies, a regular hunting establishment same errors in the figures still remain, and, to aug- was formed here, and the place received from this cir ment the confusion, the editor has placed beside them cumstance its second name of Onpwv, and also that those of the Latin editions, which often differ widely, of 'Eonрas (ènì výрaç). In a commercial point of The only recent edition of the mathematical part of view it was of no great importance, as Arrian merely Ptolemy's Geography is that of Halma, containing mentions among its exports tortoise-shell and ivory only the first book and the latter part of the seventh, but to the ancient astronomers and geographers it was with a French version and notes, Paris, 1828, 4to. directly the reverse, since they regarded it as the fit(Schöll, Hist. Lit. Gr., vol. 5, p. 240, seqq.-Id, ibid., test place for measuring a degree, and thus ascertain vol. 5, p. 271.—Id. ibid., vol. 6, p. 312, &c.-Com- ing the circumference of the globe. The harbour of pare Delambre, in Biogr. Univ., vol. 36, p. 263.)- Mirza Mombanik, about 15 geographical miles north XIX. A native of Ascalon, who followed the profes of Massua, appears to indicate the ancient Ptolemais. sion of a grammarian at Rome before the time of He-Mannert, Geogr., vol. 10, pt. 44, seqq.) rodian, by whom he is cited. He wrote a work on PUBLICŎLA, a surname given to Publius Valerius, Synonymes, Hepi Siapopus hetev ("On the difference according to Dionysius and Plutarch, on account of his

protecting the rights of the people (populum and colo, | productions, which seem to have been peculiar to RoPoplicola, Publicola). Niebuhr dissents from this ety-man genius. The sentiments of Publius Syrus now ap mology in the following remarks: "We cannot agree pear trite. They have become familiar to mankind, and with the Greek Dionysius and Plutarch in translating Publicola as a compound term by dnuoкndns, the protector of the people; but we must recognise therein the old Latin form of the adjective with a superfluous termination, which is sometimes mistaken for a diminutive, sometimes for a compound. It is equiva-(Dunlop's Roman Literature, vol. 1, p. 558, seqq.) lent to Publicus, in the sense of dпuorikós. Thus Scævola is not the diminutive, but synonymous with Scavus, and Equicolus is nothing but Equus or Equicus; Volsculus nothing but Volscus." (Roman History, vol. 1, p. 360, Walter's trans.)

PUBLILIA LEX, I. a law proposed by Publilius the Dictator, A.U.C. 414, ordaining that, before the people gave their votes, the senate should authorize whatever they might determine. (Livy, 8, 12.)—II. A law ordaining that the plebeian magistrates should be created at the comitia tributa. (Liv., 2, 56.)

ap

have been re-echoed by poets and moralists from age to age. All of them are most felicitously expressed, and few of them seem erroneous, while, at the same time, they are perfectly free from the selfish or worldlyminded wisdom of Rochefoucauld or Lord Burleigh. The sentences of Publius Syrus are appended to many of the editions of Phædrus. The most useful edition of these sentences is perhaps that of Gruter, Lugd. Bat., 1727, 8vo. The latest and most accurate edition, however, is that of Orellius, appended to his edition of Phædrus, Turici, 1832, 8vo. It contains, also, thirty sentences never before published. (Bähr, Gesch. Lit. Röm., vol. 1, p. 776.)

PULCHERIA, I. sister of Theodosius the Great, and celebrated for her piety and virtues.-II. A Roman empress, daughter of Arcadius, and sister of Theodosius the younger. She was created Augusta A.D. 414, and shared the imperial power with her brother. After the death of the latter (A.D. 450), she gave her hand to Marcianus. (Vid. Marcianus I.) Pulcheria died A.D. 454, and was interred at Ravenna, where her tomb is still to be seen.

PULCHRUM PROMONTORIUM, the same with Hermaum Promontorium. (Vid. Hermæum.)

PUNICUM BELLUM, the name given to the wars between Rome and Carthage. The Punic wars were three in number. The first took its rise from the affair of the Mamertini, an account of which will be found under the article Messana, page 836, col. 1. This was ended by the naval battle fought off the

gates Insule; and it was also memorable for the naval victory of Duilius, the first ever gained by the Romans. (Vid. Carthago, § 4.-Duilius.-Egates.) The Second Punic War commenced with the affair of Saguntum, and was terminated by the battle of Zama. During its continuance Hannibal carried on his celebrated campaigns against the Romans in Italy. (Vid. Carthago, 4.-Hannibal.-Metaurus.-Zama.) The Third Punic War was the siege and destruction of Carthage itself. (Vid. Carthago, § 4.)

PUBLIUS SYRUS, a celebrated composer and actor of mimes. He was a native of Syria, and was brought from Asia to Italy in early youth in the same vessel with his countryman and kinsman Manlius Antiochus, the professor of astrology, and Staberius Eros, the grammarian, who all, by some desert in learning, rose above their original fortune. He received a good education and liberty from his master, in reward for his witticisms and his facetious disposition. He first represented his mimes in the provincial towns of Italy, whence, his fame having spread to Rome, he was summoned to the capital, to assist in those public spectacles which Cæsar offered his countrymen in exchange for their freedom. (Macrob., Sat., 2, 7.) On one occasion he challenged all persons of his own profession to contend with him on the stage; and in this competition he successfully overcame every one of his rivals. By his success in the representation of these popular | entertainments, he amassed considerable wealth, and lived with such luxury that he never gave a great supper without having sow's udder at table, a dish which was prohibited by the censors as being too great a luxury even for the table of patricians. (Plin., 8, 51.) Nothing farther is known of his history, except that he was still continuing to perform his mimes with PUPIENUS, MARCUS CLODIUS MAXIMUS, a man of plause at the period of the death of Laberius, which obscure family, who raised himself by his merit to the happened ten months after the assassination of Cæsar. highest offices in the Roman armies, and gradually be(Chron. Euseb., ad Olymp., 184.) We have not the came a prætor, consul, prefect of Rome, and a governnames of any of the mimes of Publius, nor do we pre- or of the provinces. His father was a blacksmith. cisely know their nature or subject; all that is pre- After the death of the Gordians, Pupienus was elected served from them being a number of detached senti- with Balbinus to the imperial throne, and, to rid the ments or maxims, to the amount of 800 or 900, seldom world of the usurpation and tyranny of the Maximini, exceeding a single line, but containing reflections of he immediately marched against these tyrants; but he unrivalled force, truth, and beauty, on all the various was soon informed that they had been sacrificed to the relations, situations, and feelings of human life. Both fury and resentment of their own soldiers. He preparthe writers and actors of mimes were probably careful ed, after this, to make war against the Persians, who to have their memory stored with commonplaces and insulted the majesty of Rome, but was massacred, A.D. precepts of morality, in order to introduce them appro- 236, by the prætorian guards. Balbinus shared his priately in their extemporaneous performances. The fate. Pupienus is sometimes called Maximus. In maxims of Publius were interspersed through his his private character he appeared always grave and sedramas; but, being the only portion of these produc-rious. He was the constant friend of justice, moderations now remaining, they have just the appearance of tion, and clemency, and no greater encomium can be thoughts or sentiments, like those of Rochefoucauld. passed upon his virtues than to say that he was inHis mimes must either have been very numerous, or vested with the purple without soliciting it, and that very thickly loaded with these moral aphorisms. It is the Roman senate said they had selected him from also surprising that they seem raised far above the ordi- thousands, because they knew no person more worthy nary tone even of regular comedy, and appear for the or better qualified to support the dignity of an emgreater part to be almost stoical maxims. Seneca has re-peror. (Capitol, Vit. Maxim.-Id., Vit. Gord.) marked, that many of his eloquent verses are fitter for PUPIUS, a tragic poet at Rome, contemporary with the buskin than the slipper. (Ep., 8.) How such ex- Cæsar. He was famed for his power in exciting emoalted precepts should have been grafted on the lowest tion. Hence the scholiast on Horace remarks (Epist., farce, and how passages, which would hardly be appro-1, 1, 67), "Pupius, Tragadiographus, ita affectus priate in the most serious sentimental comedy, were spectantium movit, ut eos flere compelleret. Inde isadapted to the actions or manners of gross and drunken tum versum fecit: buffoons, is a difficulty which could only be solved had we fortunately received entire a larger portion of these

"Flebunt amici et bene noti mortem meam ;
Nam populus in me vivo lacrymatu est satis.'"

PURPURARIÆ, islands off the coast of Mauritania, so | bodies of the lower orders. These holes were called called from the manufacture of purple dye established puticuli, from their resemblance to wells, or, more in them. They answer at the present day to Madeira probably, from the stench which issued from them, in and the adjacent isles. (Plin., 6, 32.) consequence of this practice. (Varro, L. L., 4, 5.— Fest., s. v. Putic.) The Esquiliæ seem to have been considered as unwholesome till this mode of burial was discontinued, which change took place in the reign of Augustus, when the gardens of Maecenas were laid out here. (Hor., Sat., 1, 88.-Id., Ep., 5, 100.)

PYDNA, a city of Macedonia, on the western coast of the Sinus Thermaïcus, above Dium. The earliest mention of this town is in Scylax, who styles it a Greek city (p. 26), from which it appears at that time to have been independent of the Macedonian princes. Thu cydides speaks of an attack made upon it by the Atheafterward taken by Archelaus, king of Macedon, who removed its site twenty stadia from the sea, as Diodorus asserts; but Thucydides states, that it had been, long before that period, in the possession of Alera der the son of Amyntas, and that Themistocles sailed thence on his way to Persia (1, 137). After the death of Archelaus, Pydna again fell into the hands of the Athenians; but the circumstances of this change re not known to us. It was afterward taken from then by Philip, and given to Olynthus. The next fact rel ative to Pydna which is recorded in history, is pos terior to the reign of Alexander the Great, whose mother Olympias was here besieged by Cassander and, all hopes of relief being cut off by the intrenchment having been made round the town from sea to sea, famine at length compelled Olympias to surrender, when she was thrown into prison, and afterward pat to death. (Diod. Sic., 19, 51.)-Pydna is also famous for the decisive victory gained in its neighbourhood by Paulus Æmilius over the Macedonian army under Perseus, which put an end to that ancient empireThe epitomiser of Strabo says, that in his time it was called Kitros (Strab., 509); as likewise the scholast to Demosthenes; and this name is still attached to the spot at the present day. Dr. Clarke observed at Ar tros a vast tumulus, which he considered, with much probability, as marking the site of the great battle fought in these plains. (Cramer's Anc. Greece, vol. 1, p. 214, seqq.)

PUTEOLI, a city of Campania, now Pozzuoli, on the coast, and not far from the Lucrine Lake. Its Greek name was Dicæarchia; but, when the Romans sent a colony thither, they gave it the name of Puteoli, probably from the number of its walls, or perhaps from the stench which was emitted by the sulphureous and aluminous springs in the neighbourhood. (Strabo, 245. -Plin., 31, 2.) Respecting the origin of this place, we learn from Strabo that it was at first the harbour of Cuma. Hence we may fairly regard it as a colony of that city, without calling in the Samians to assist in its foundation, as Stephanus Byzantinus reports, and Hie-nians before the Peloponnesian war (1, 61). It was ronymus. (Euseb., Chron., 2.) The Romans appear to have first directed their attention to this spot in the second Punic war, when Fabius the consul was ordered to fortify and garrison the town, which had only been frequented hitherto for commercial purposes. (Liv., 24, 7.) In the following year it was attacked by Hannibal without success (Liv., 24, 13), and about this time became a naval station of considerable importance armies were sent to Puteoli from thence (Liv., 26, 17), and the embassy sent from Carthage, which was to sue for peace at the close of the second Punic war, disembarked here, and proceeded to Rome by land (Liv., 30, 22), as did St. Paul about 250 years afterward. The apostle remained seven days at Puteoli before he set forward on his journey by the Appian Way. (Acts, xxviii., 13.) In the time of Strabo, this city appears to have been a place of very great commerce, and particularly connected with Alexandrea; the imports from that city, which was then the emporium of the East, being much greater than the exports of Italy. (Strabo, 793.-Suet., Aug., 98,-Senec., Ep., 77.) The harbour of Puteoli was spacious and of peculiar construction, being formed of vast piles of mortar and sand, which, owing to the strongly cementing properties of the latter material, became very solid and compact masses; and these, being sunk in the sea, afforded secure anchorage for any number of vessels. (Strab., 245.) Pliny (35, 13) has remarked this quality of the sand in the neighbourhood of Puteoli, which now goes by the name of Pozzolana. The same writer informs us (36, 12), that this harbour possessed also the advantage of a conspicuous lighthouse. The remains which are yet to be seen in the harbour of Puteoli are commonly, but erroneously, considered to be the ruins of Caligula's bridge; whereas that emperor is said expressly to have used boats, anchored in a double line, for the construction of the bridge which he threw over from Puteoli to Bais; these were covered with earth, after the manner of Xerxes's famous bridge across the Hellespont. Upon the completion of the work, Caligula is described as appearing there in great pomp, on horseback or in a chariot, for two days, followed by the prætorian band and a splendid retinue. It is evident, therefore, that this structure was designed for a temporary purpose, and it is farther mentioned that it was begun from the piles of Puteoli. (Suet., Calig., 19.-Josephus, Antiq. Jud., 19, 1.) Puteoli became a Roman colony A.U.C. 558, was recolonized by Augustus, and again, for the third time, by Nero. (Tacit., Ann., 14, 27.) This place appears to have espoused the cause of Vespasian with great zeal, from which circumstar.ce, according to an inscription, it obtained the title of Colonia Flavia. The same memorial informs us, that Antoninus Pius caused the harbour of Puteoli to be repaired. (Cramer's Anc. Italy, vol. 2, p. 163, seqq.)

PUTICULI, a place at Rome, in the vicinity of the Esquiline. The Campus Esquilinus was, in the early days of Rome, without the walls of the city, and a number of pits were dug in it to receive the dead

PYGMEI, a fabulous nation of dwarfs, placed by Aristotle near the sources of the Nile (Hist. An, 12.-Ælian, H. A., 2, 1; 3, 13); by Ctesias, in Irdia (Ind., 11); and by Eustathius, amusingly enough, in England, over against Thule (¿voa rù 'Ïy — Eustath., ad II., 3, 6, p. 372.)—They were of a very diminutive size, being, according to one account, of the height merely of a πuyun, or 20 fingers' breadth (Eustath., 1. c.), while others made them three aí, or 27 inches in size. (Plin., 7, 2.) The Prg: mies are said to have lived under a salubrious sky and amid a perpetual spring, the northern blasts being kept off by lofty mountains. (Plin., l. c.) An annual war fare was waged between them and the cranes (H Il., 3, 3); and they are fabled to have advanced to battle against these birds, mounted on the backs of rams and goats, and armed with bows and arrows They used also a kind of bells or rattles (xporca) to scare them away. (Hecateus, ap. Schol. as R., 3 6.-Heyne, ad loc.-Plin., l. c.) Every spring they came down in warlike array to the seashore, for the purpose of destroying the eggs and young of the cranes, since otherwise they would have been overpowered by the number of their feathered antagonists. (Hecatus, ap. Plin., l. c.) Their dwellings were constructed of clay, feathers, and the shells of eggs. Aristotle, how ever, makes them to have lived in caves, like Trogiodytes, and to have come out at harvest-time with hatch ets to cut down the corn, as if to fell a forest. (Estath., l. c.)-Philostratus relates, that Hercules once fell asleep in the deserts of Africa after he had con

50), and by Arnobius (adv. Gent., lib. 6, p. 206). Consult, also, Philostratus (Vit. Apollon., 5, 5) and Meursius (Cypr., 2).

PYLADES, I. a son of Strophius, king of Phocis, by one of the sisters of Agamemnon. He was educated together with his cousin Orestes, with whom he formed a most intimate friendship, and whom he aided in avenging the murder of Agamemnon by the punishment of Clytemnestra and Ægisthus. He received in marriage the hand of Electra, the sister of Orestes, by whom he had two sons, Medon and Strophius. The friendship of Orestes and Pylades became proverbial. (Vid. Orestes.)-II. A celebrated actor in the reign of Augustus, banished by that emperor for pointing with his finger to one of the audience who had hissed him, and thus making him known to all. (Suet., Vit. Aug., 45.—Macrob., Sat., 2, 7.)

quered Antæus, and that he was suddenly awakened by stowed upon the works of his own hands. He bean attack which had been made upon his body by an came enamoured of a beautiful statue of ivory which army of these Liliputians, who professed to be the he had made, and, at his earnest request and prayers, avengers of Antæus, since they were his brethren, according to the mythologists, the goddess of Beauty and earthborn like himself. A simultaneous onset changed this favourite statue into a woman, whom the was made upon his head, hands, and feet. Arrows artist married, and by whom he had a son called Pawere discharged at him, his hair was ignited, spades phus, who founded the city of that name in Cyprus. were thrust into his eyes, and coverings or doors (v-(Ovid, Met., 10, 9.)-Compare the other version of pai) were applied to his mouth and nostrils to prevent the legend, as given from the Cyprian fables of Philorespiration. The hero awoke in the midst of the war-stephanus, by Clemens of Alexandrea (Protrept., p. fare, and was so much pleased with the courage displayed by his tiny foes, that he gathered them all into his lion skin and brought them to Eurystheus. (Philostr., Icon., 2, 22, p. 817, ed. Morell.)—The Pygmies of antiquity, like those of more modern times, may be safely regarded as mere creatures of the imagination. We have had them even placed, by popular belief, in our own country. A number of small graves, two or three feet in length, were found in the West, containing fragments of evidently adult bones. The idea of a pigmy race was immediately conceived; but it was unknown to the discoverers, that the Indians, after disinterring their dead, buried them in graves just large enough to hold the bones made up into a small bundle for the convenience of transportation. (M Culloch, Researches on America, p. 516.)-With respect to the Pygmies of ancient fable, it may be remarked, that Homer places them merely in southern lands, with- PYLE (IIúλα), a general name among the Greeks out specifying their particular locality; nor does he for any narrow pass. The most remarkable were the say a word respecting their diminutive size. (Heyne, following. I. Pyla Albaniæ. (Vid. Caucasus.)-II. ad Hom., Il., 3, 3.) Aristotle, as we have already said, Pyla Amanicæ, a pass through the range of Mount assigns them a residence near the sources of the Nile Amanus, between Cilicia Campestris and Syria. Da(Hist. An., 8, 15), in which he is followed by Elian rius marched through this pass to the battle-field of (H. A., 2, 1; 3, 15) and others. Some agree with Issus. (Quint. Curt., 3, 4.- Ptol., 5, 8.-Plin., 5, Ctesias in making India their native country. Pliny, 27.)-III. Pyle Caspia. (Vid. Caspia Porta.)-IV. in one passage, places them also in India (7, 2), but in Pyle Caucasiæ. (Vid. Caucasus.)-V. Pyla Cilicia, another in Thrace (4, 2). Others, again, making the a pass of Cilicia, in the range of Mount Taurus, cranes to wing their way from the northern regions through which flows the river Sarus. (Plin., 5, 27. over the Pontus Euxinus, regard Scythia and Thrace-Polyb., 12, 8.)-VI. Pyle Sarmatiæ. (Vid. Cauas the Pygmy land.-Many have supposed that the fa- casus, towards the close of that article.)-VII. Pylæ ble of the Pygmies and cranes has a reference to the Syriæ, a pass leading from Cilicia into Syria, and country of Egypt. As the cranes make their appear- bounded on one side by the sea. (Xen., Anab., 1, 4. ance there about the month of November, the time in-Arrian, Exp. Alex., 2, 8.) which the waters are subsided, and devour the corn PYLOS, I. an ancient city of Elis, about eighty stasown on the lands, the whole fable of the Pygmies may dia to the east of the city of Elis, and which disputed be explained by supposing them to have been none with two other towns of the same name the honour other than the Egyptians, and the term pygmy (vy of being the capital of Nestor's dominions; these were μałoç) not to refer to any diminutiveness of size, but Pylos of Triphylia, and the Messenian Pylos. This to the cubits (Túyuaι, πnxeis) of the Nile's rise. Some somewhat interesting question in Homeric geography scholars suppose the germe of the fable to be found in will be considered under the head of the last-mentionthe remarks of Strabo, respecting the μikpopviav Toved city. Pausanias informs us (6, 22) that the Elean ¿v Aibúŋ qvouévov. (Strabo, 820.) Barrow, in his Travels to the Cape of Good Hope (vol. 1, p. 239), endeavours to identify the Bosjesmans of the Cape and the Pygmies of the ancients, but with no great success. Heeren regards the whole Pygmy narrative as fabulous, but assigns it an Indian origin, and makes it to have spread from the East into the countries of the West. (Ideen, vol. 1, p. 368.) Malte-Brun inclines in favour of the existence of a pygmy race, from the accounts of modern travellers, who state that they have seen in the remote East small and deformed beings not unlike in appearance to the pygmies of former days, and for the most part only four feet in size. Hence he thinks it not unlikely that a diminutive race, resembling, in some degree, the ancient pygmies, may still be existing among the remote and desert regions of Thibet! (Malte- Brun, Annales des Voyages, vol. 1, p. 355, seqq.-Bähr, ad Ctes., p. 295.)

PYGMALION, I. a king of Tyre, son of Belus, and brother to the celebrated Dido. (Vid. Dido.)-II. A celebrated statuary of the island of Cyprus. The debauchery of the females of Amathus, to which he was a witness, created in him such an aversion for the fair sex, that he resolved never to marry. The affection which he had denied to the other sex he liberally be

city was originally founded by Pylus, son of Cleson, king of Megara; but that, having been destroyed by Hercules, it was afterward restored by the Eleans. (Compare Xen., Hist. Gr., 7, 4, 16.) This town was deserted and in ruins when Pausanias made the tour of Elis. We collect from Strabo (339) that Pylos was at the foot of Mount Pholoë, and between the heads of the rivers Peneus and Selleïs. This site agrees sufficiently with a spot named Portes, where there are vestiges of antiquity, under Mount Maurobouni, which must be the Pholoë of the ancients. (Gell, Itin. of the Morea, p. 30, seq.-Cramer's Anc. Greece, vol. 3, p. 91.)-II. A city of Elis, in the district of Triphylia, regarded by Strabo, with great probability, as the city of Nestor. (Vid. Pylos III.) It is placed by that geographer at a distance of thirty stadia from the coast, and near a small river once called Amathus and Pamisus, but subsequently Mamaus and Arcadicus. The epithet of hualoes, applied by Homer to the Pylian territory, was referred to the first of these names. (Strabo, 344.) Notwithstanding its ancient celebrity, this city is scarcely mentioned in later times. Pausanias, even, does not appear to have been aware of its existence (6, 22). Strabo affirms that on the conquest of Triphylia by the Eleans, they annexed its