PERSIA, a celebrated kingdom of Asia, comprebending, in its utmost extent, all the countries between the Indus and the Mediterranean, and from the Euxine and Caspian to the Persian Gulf and Indian Ocean. In its more limited acceptation, however, the name Persia (or rather Persis) denoted a particular province, the original seat of the conquerors of Asia, where they were inured to hardship and privation. This region was bounded on the north and northwest by Media, from which it was separated by the mountain-range known to the ancients under the name of Parachoathras (Ptol., 6, 4.- Strab., 522); on the south by the Persian Gulf; on the east by Carmania; and on the west by Susiana, from which it was separated by rugged and inaccessible mountains. (Strab., 728.) The country included within these limits is, according to Chardin's estimate, as large as France. The southern part of it, near the coast, is a sandy plain, almost uninhabitable, on account of the heat and the pestilential winds that blow from the desert of Carmania. (Plin., 12, 20.—Strab., 727.) But, at some distance from the coast, the ground rises, and the interior of the country, towards the north, is intersected by numerous mountain-ranges. The soil upon these mountains is very dry and barren, and, though there are some fertile

also worshipped, received its name from the impress | eldest son Philip, came out of the temple where he had made by the fertilizing foot of Pegasus or Bellerophon, taken refuge and surrendered to the Romans. He who followed in the track of the high deeds achieved was treated at first by Æmilius with considerable inby Perseus in Lower Asia, so the Chemmites pretend-dulgence, but was obliged to parade the streets of ed that Egypt was indebted for its fertility to the gi- Rome with his children, to grace the triumph of his gantic sandal left by the demi-god upon earth at the conqueror. He was afterward confined, by order of periods of his frequent visitations. (Herod., 2, 91.) the senate, at Alba Fucentia, near the lake Fucinus, They alone of the Egyptians celebrated games in hon- where he died in a few years. His son Philip also our of this warlike hero of the Sun, this conqueror in died at Alba. Another and younger son is said to his celestial career, this worthy precursor of Hercules, have become a scribe or writer to the municipality of his grandson. If we connect what has been here said the same place. (Liv., 44, 42.—Plut., Vit. P. Emil. with the traces of Mithriac worship in Ethiopia and - Encycl. Us. Knowl., vol. 17, p. 466.- Cramer's Egypt, as well as in Persia and Greece, we will be Anc. Greece, vol. 1, p. 191.) tempted to conjecture, that these two branches of a very early religion, the fundamental idea in which was the contest incessantly carried on by the pure and fertilizing principle of light against darkness and sterility, unite in one parent trunk at the very centre of the East. (Creuzer, Symbolik, par Guigniaut, vol. 3, p. 156, seqq.)-II. Son of Philip V., king of Macedonia, began at an early age to serve in his father's army, and distinguished himself by some successes against the barbarous nations which bordered on Macedonia. His younger brother Demetrius was carried away as hostage by the consul Flamininus, at the time of the peace between Rome and Philip, and, after remaining several years at Rome, where he won the favour of the senate, was sent back to Macedonia. After a time, he was again sent by his father to Rome, on a mission, in consequence of fresh disagreements which had sprung up between the two states. Demetrius succeeded in maintaining peace, but, after his return to Macedonia, he was accused of ambitious designs, of aspiring to the crown, and of being in secret correspondence with Rome. Perseus, who was jealous of him, supported the charges, and Philip doomed his younger son to death; but, not daring to have him openly executed, through fear of the Romans, he caused him to be poisoned. It is said that, having discovered his inno-valleys among them, they are in general fit only for the cence, his remorse and his indignation against Perseus hastened his death. Perseus ascended the throne B.C. 179. This monarch had been brought up by his father with sentiments of hatred against the Romans, for the humiliation which they had inflicted on Macedonia. He dissembled his feelings, however, at the beginning of his reign, and confirmed the treaty existing between his father and the senate. Meanwhile he endeavoured, by a prudent and diligent administration, to strengthen his power, and retrieve the losses which his kingdom had sustained during the previous reign. But the Romans, who viewed with suspicion these indications of rising opposition, sought an early opportunity of crushing their foe, before his plans could be brought to maturity. Pretexts were not long wanting for such a purpose, and war was declared, notwithstanding every offer of concession on the part of Perseus. After a campaign of no decisive result in Thessaly, the war was transferred to the plains of Pieria in Macedonia, where Perseus encamped in a strong position on the banks of the river Enipeus. But the consul Paulus Æmilius having despatched a chosen body of troops across the mountains to attack him in the rear, he was compelled to retire to Pydna, where a battle took place, which terminated in his entire defeat, 20,000 Macedonians having fallen on the field. This single battle decided the fate of the ancient and powerful kingdom of Macedonia, after a duration of 530 years. Perseus fled almost alone, without waiting for the end of the conflict. He went first to Pella, the ancient seat of the Macedonian kings, then to Amphipolis, and thence to the island of Samothrace, whose asylum was considered inviolable. From this quarter he attempted to escape by sea to Thrace; but a Cretan master of a vessel, after having shipped part of his treasure, sailed away, and left the king on the shore. The attendants having also forsaken him except one, Perseus, with his

residence of nomadic shepherds. In the inner part of the country, however, there are many well-watered and fertile plains, in the largest of which Persepolis is situated. (Strab., 727.-Ptol., 6, 4.)·

1. Names of Persia.

Persia is called, in the Old Testament, Paras. Another name employed by the sacred writers is Elam Moses first uses this appellation in Genesis (10, 22), but a great error is committed by many who regard the ancient Elamites as the forefathers and progenitors of the whole nation of the Persians. The term Elam, strictly speaking, belongs only to one particular province of the Persian empire, called by the Grecian writers Elymaïs, and forming part of the modern Chowsistan. The geographical notions of the ancient Hebrews were extremely limited and as they first became acquainted with the inhabitants of the province of Elymais, before they knew anything respecting the rest of the Persians, they applied the term Elam to the whole of Persia.-Some modern writers have also regarded the name Chouta (Cuthaa), in the Scriptures, as designating Persia; and, in forming this opinion, they have been guided by the passage in the 2d book of Kings, 17, 24, where a Chouta is mentioned, which Josephus (Ant. Jud., 9, 14, 3) places in Persia. Michaelis, however (Spicileg., Geogr. Hebr. Ext., pt. 1, p. 104, seqq.), seeks to prove that Chouta was in Phoenicia, not in Persia; while Hyde and Reland place it in Babylonia. If we adopt, in preference to the two last-mentioned writers, the testimony of Josephus, we may, with great probability, conclude that Chouta, like Elam, only denoted in fact a part, but, like it, was used to designate a whole. Among the Greek and Roman writers Persia occasionally bears the name of Achæmenia, and the Persians themselves Hence Hesychius that of Achæmenii ('Axauεvioi)

remarks, 'Axaquévns, Пépons. Ammianus Marcelli- | the fictions of Dabistan. These fictions have far more nus (19, 2), in the common text of his history, gives connexion with the Brahminical traditions than with Achæmenium as equivalent, in the Persian tongue, to those of the Zend-Avesta, though they are found, in "Rex regibus imperans ;" bat Valois (Valesius) cor- fact, ingrafted on the latter. The fourteen Abads; rects the common reading by the substitution of Saan- the institution of the four castes by the great Abad; saan, which closely resembles the modern title of roy- in a word, that ideal empire, as unlimited in geographalty in Persia, Schaahinschaah.-The name Achæmenia ical extent as in the immensity of the periods (sidereal comes in reality from that of Achamenes, the founder in appearance, but at bottom purely artificial and arof the royal line of Persia. In the word Achæmenes, bitrary), that are connected with it; all this is evidently the last two syllables (-enes) are a mere Greek append- borrowed from India: and yet all this, when joined to age, owing their existence to the well-known custom, the name of Mahabali, supposed to be identical with on the part of the Greeks, of altering foreign, and par- Baal or Belus, was thought to furnish a wonderful conticularly Oriental names, in such a way as to adapt firmation of the favourite hypothesis of a great antethem to their own finer organs of hearing. (Compare diluvian monarchy, which had embraced India, Persia, Josephus, Ant. Jud., 1, 6.-Plin., Ep., 8, 4.) We have, and Assyria in a common bond of language, religion, then, Achaem (Axa) remaining. The initial letter and national institutions. In this way it was believed is merely the Oriental alif pronounced as a soft breath- that a solution could be given of all the difficult probing, and the root of the word is Chaem (Xay). On lems presented by the earliest portion of the history comparing this with the Oriental name Djemschid (in of the world. These traditions, however, have an air which the final syllable, schid, is a mere addition of a of philosophic abstraction, or, to speak more candidly, later age), we cannot fail to be struck by the resem- of premeditated invention, which ill agrees with the blance. And this resemblance will become still more native simplicity that marks the legends of the Zendmarked if we consider that Djem (Djoëmo in the Zend- Avesta. It is from the Zend-Avesta, carefully comAvesta) begins properly with a species of sibilant G, pared with the more genuine portion of the Schah-Nawhich, being pronounced more roughly in some dia- meh, and with the scanty information which the Helects than in others, approximates very closely to the brews and Greeks have transmitted to us on this subsound of Ch. Besides, all that the Greeks tell us of ject, that we must seek for some true information relAchæmenes corresponds very exactly with what the ative to the first periods of Persian history. At first East relates of its Djemschid. Achæmenes was the view, indeed, there seems to be the widest possible founder of the royal line of Persia, and to him Cyrus, difference between the narratives of the Jews and Darius, and Xerxes were proud of tracing their origin. Greeks, and the national recollections of the people With the Persians of the present day, the name of of Iran; and critics have heaped hypothesis upon hyDjemschid is held in the highest veneration as that of pothesis, in order to reconcile this discrepance: some the founder of Persepolis, and a great and glorious have even regarded the thing as altogether impossible. monarch.-Herodotus (7, 61) states that the Persians Before the discovery of the Zend books, it was easy were anciently (πúhαi) called by the Greeks Cephenes to suppose that the Oriental writers, coming as they (Knonves), but by themselves and their neighbours Ar- did at so late a period upon the stage, had confounded tai ('Apraioi). As regards the name Cephenes, there together the Assyrians, Medes, and Persians as one is an evident mistake on the part of the historian, and and the same people, or else that they had designedly, the appellation beyond a doubt belongs only to certain and from feelings of national vanity, connected their tribes of the ancient Northern Chaldæa, who actually own history with that of the powerful communities bore this name. With respect to the term Artai it which had preceded them in the sovereignty of Westmay be remarked, that it merely designates a brave ern Asia. (Consult Anquetil du Perron, Mem. de and warrior-people, being derived from the Persian art l'Acad. des Inscript., vols. 40 and 42.-Görres, Myor ard, "strong," "brave." (Consult remarks at the thengesch., vol. 1, p. 213, seqq., &c.) At the present end of the article Artaxerxes.)—One of the earliest day, however, this opinion is accompanied with great names of Persia and the Persian empire, and the one difficulties; for the same names, and, in general, the most usual with the Persians themselves up to the same ancient facts, are found, with some slight shades present day, is Iran, while all the country beyond the of difference, in the Zend-Avesta and in Ferdousi or Oxus was denominated Turan. The former of these his copyists. Everything, therefore, depends upon appellations is identical with the Eeriene of the Zend- the period to be assigned for the composition of the Avesta, and will be alluded to again in the course of Zend books.-Most writers distinguish between the the present article.-The name Persia would seem to Medes and Persians from their very origin; and to the have come from that of the province of Faarsi-stan or former of these two nations they refer Zoroaster, his Paarsi-stan, called also Faars or Paars, and the same laws, the books that bear his name-in a word, the with the Persis (Пépois) of the Greeks. (Compare whole system of the Magian worship, and the civilizathe Scripture Paras already mentioned.) In this prov- tion of the Persians themselves. This theory makes ince we find the genuine race of Iranians; and it was the Medes to have formed originally a part of a great here that the magnificent city of Istakhar, which the Bactrian nation, a Bactro-Median empire, and to have Greeks have made known to Europe by the name of received from the Bactrians the elements of their own Persepolis, was built by the monarchs of Iran. The civilization. (Compare Heeren, Ideen, vol. 1, p. 427, origin of the term Faars or Paars has been much dis- seqq.) The writer just mentioned even inclines to puted by philologists (Wahl, Vorder und Mittel-Asien, the opinion that the Medes and Bactrians formed, p. 225, seqq.); the root is evidently to be sought for for a long time, two distinct states, of which the latin the term Aria or Eeriene, and this would bring Iran ter was much earlier in its origin than the former and Persia, as names of the same country, in close (Handbuch der Gesch., p. 29); and this will serve to approximation. (Vid. Aria.) One explanation of the explain the two dynasties, so different from each other name "Persian" will be given farther on. and so very unequal in number, that are given by Herodotus and Ctesias, while it at the same time re-establishes in their rights the communities on the banks of the Oxus, whom Aristotle and Clearchus regarded as having enjoyed, at so remote a period, the blessings of civilization. (Diog. Laert., proœm. vi.)—As regards the origin of the Medes, Persians, and other ancient nations of the remote East, as well as their early history, all remains uncertain and obscure. It

2. Origin and Early History of the Persians. The first historical and religious epochs of Persia are enveloped in such obscurity, and so many have erred in relation to the character, far more mythic than historical, of the early Oriental traditions, that we need not wonder at the earnest enthusiasm with which such men as Sir W. Jones and J. von Müller have adopted

is generally conceded, however, that the Bactrians, | with Artaa and Ari or Eeri (a root found in various Medes, and Persians bore at first the common name Zendic terms, such as Ariema, Eeriene, Eeriemens, of Arii, which recalls to mind that of Iran; but with Eeriene-Veedjo, &c.), re-appear in the Aryas and Ariarespect to the primitive country of these Are there is Verta of the Sanscrit books, "the illustrious," and little unanimity of opinion. Some make them to have "the land of the illustrious," or " of heroes." (Comcome from Caucasus; others seek for their earliest pare the Greek 'Hpwes, a word of the same origin.) settlement among the mountains to the northeast of All these analogies, joined to the striking resemblance India, and, it must be confessed, with great proba- between the Zend, the Parsi, and the Sanscrit, point t bility. Görres persists in his hypothesis of making a primitive race of one and the same origin, speaking the Assyrians, Medes, and Persians to have descend- at first one and the same language, but subsequently ed from the chain of Caucasus, speaking the same lan- divided into various nations and dialects. The tribes guage, and forming one and the same race; and to in Bactriana and the neighbouring country, continuing this race, thus combined, he assigns a great monarchy to dwell in the neighbourhood of the parent source, reof Iran, extending from Caucasus to the Himmalayan mained more faithful than others to the ancient name Mountains. He brings together and compares with and language. Other tribes moved off in a southeast each other the names Iran, Aria, Aturia, Assyria, direction, and towards the region of Caucasus, whither Assur, &c., and appears to identify Shem with Djem they transported with them the names of both Albordj or Djemschid, the first mythic chief of this early em- and Ariema (Armenia). Hence we have both Eastpire. (Mythengesch., vol. 1, p. 213, seqq.-Compare ern and Western Arii, and these last became in time Schah. Nameh, Einleit., p. vi., seqq.) Another sys- a separate nation, the Medes, known to the Hindus tem has been more recently started by Rhode, and has under the name of Pahlavas (Pehlavan is “a hero” been developed with great ability. According to this in Firdousi), which recalls to mind the Pehlet, their writer, the Bactrians, Medes, and Persians composed language, the fruit of their intermixture with people the common and primitive Iran, speaking the Zend of another race. Finally, the Persians, the antiquity language or its different dialects, and coming origin- of whose name (Parsi, “the clear," "the pure,” “the ally from Eeriene Veedjo, and from Mount Albordy, brilliant," "the inhabitants of the country of light"), which he finds near the sources of the Oxus and the as well as their idiom, worship, and traditions, would mountains to the north of India, the names of which seem to indicate a close and long-continued connexion were transferred in a later age to Caucasus and Ar- with the first branch, established themselves, we know menia. The arguments adduced by this writer in not at what epoch, in the country of Pares or Pars, support of his hypothesis are drawn from the Zend which became, in the time of Cyrus, the centre of an books, and in particular from the Vendidad, at the empire, that recalled to mind in some degree the fabcommencement of which latter work an account is ulous sway of his great progenitor Djemschid. (Rhode, given of the creation, or, as Rhode expresses it, of Heilige Sagc, p. 60, seqq. — Id., über Alter., &c., p. the successive inhabitings of various countries, and in 18, seqq. Von Hammer, Heidelb. Jahrb., 1823, p. the number of which we find, after Eeriene Veedjo, 84, seqq.-Ousely's Travels, vol. 2, p. 305, seqq.Soghdo (Sogdiana), Moore (Merou), Bàkhdi (probably F. Von Schlegel, Wien. Jahrb., vol. 8, p. 458, seqq. Balk), Neva (Nysa), Haroiou (Herat), &c. Rhode -D'Anquetil, Zend-Avesta, vol. 1, p. 2, 263, seqq. sees in this enumeration an ancient tradition respect- vol. 2, p. 408.- Creuzer, Symbolik, par Guignast, ing the migrations of a race, for a long period of no- vol. 2, p. 677, seqq.)-According to the Pehlvi tradi madic habits, who kept moving on gradually towards tions, the first dynasty in Iran was that of the Pischthe south, under the conduct of Djemschid, as far as dadians. Keioumaratz, say the same legends, was Ver or Var, a delightful country, where they finally the first who governed in the world. He lived a thou established themselves, and where Djemschid built a sand years, and reigned thirty. Covered with the skin city and palace, Var-Djemsgherd, which Rhode, after of a tiger, he descended from the mountains and taught Herder, takes for Persia proper (Persis) or Pars, men the use of vestments and more nutritive food. with its capital Persepolis, identifying at the same Abriman, the genius of evil, sent a demon to attack time Achæmenes with Djemschid. M. Von Hammer him. Siamek, the son of Keïoumaratz, was slain in adopts, in general, this opinion of Rhode in regard to the conflict. Houcheng avenged the death of his fathe geography of the Vendidad, with the exception of ther. He came to the throne at the age of forty years. the last point. He thinks that Ver and Var-Djems- He reigned with justice, taught men the art of cultchid cannot be Pars or Fars and Persepolis, but the vating and sowing the fields, and made them acquaint country more to the north, where are at the presented with the use of grain. Meeting, on one occasion, day Damaghan and Kaswin, and where stood in for- a monster in a forest, he seized an enormous stone to mer days Hecatompylos, the true city of Djemschid. attack him; the stone, striking against a rock, flew The celebrated traveller and Orientalist, Sir W. Ouse- into a thousand pieces, and fire was discovered. With ly, without identifying Var and Pars as Rhode does, the aid of this element he invented the art of working inclines, nevertheless, to the belief that it is to Persep-metals: he thus formed the pincers, the saw, and the olis, its edifices, and the plain in which it is situated, hammer. He directed also the courses of rivers, and that the Zend-Avesta refers under the names already constructed canals. He taught his subjects, more mentioned, as well as under that of Djemkand. With over, the art of raising cattle and of substituting woolout presuming to offer any opinion on this disputed len stuffs for the skins of animals. Theioumouratz, son point, we may take the liberty of remarking, that the of Houcheng, succeeded. He was the first that pur Greeks themselves speak of the Arii as a large family sued the chase with the onca and the falcon, and of nations, to which the Magi, and, in general, all the taught music to men. An angel, sent from heaven, Median tribes or castes were considered as belonging. presented him with a lance and horse, to combat and (Mayoì dè xaì mãv rò 'Apelov yévos. - Damasc., ap. subdue the evil spirits. He gave them battle at the Wolf, Anecd. Græc., 3, p. 259. Compare Herod., 7, head of the Iranians, completely defeated them, and 62, and 1, 101.) The Persians called their ancient took a great number prisoners. These begged for life, heroes 'Apraio (Herod., 7, 61.-Id., 6, 98.-Hellan- and, in return for the boon, taught him writing and ic., ap. Steph. Byz., 8. v. 'Apraia), and Artaxerzes is said the elements of knowledge. Theioumouratz, the conto signify, as an appellation, "a great warrior," and to queror of these demons, reigned thirty years. He was be compounded of Art or Ard, "strong," and the succeeded by his son Djemschid. The birds, and the Zendic Khshetra," a warrior," which is almost iden-peris or good spirits, obeyed him. He invented the tical in form with the Sanscrit Arta-Kchatryia. More- cuirass, precious stuffs, and the art of embroidery. over, the terms Art and Aria or Ariana, together He built the city of Var Djemschid, divided his sub

composed of the people of Djin and Khâwer; entered Persia, but were defeated in succession, and their leadere slain. Feridoun died beloved by his subjects, whom he had rendered happy during a period of five hundred years. During this time lived the valiant Sâm, son of Nerimán, prince of Sedjestan, and of Zaboulistán or Ghizneh." His son Zal received from Menoutchehr the sovereignty of all the countries from K'aboul to the river Sind, and from his father the country of Zaboulistán. Mihrab reigned at this period in K'aboul. He was of Tasi origin, and of the race of Dzohák'. Zal married his daughter Roudabeh, and became the father of Roustem, the hero of Persia, and whose exploits form the principal subject of the poem of Firdousi. Menoutchehr transmitted the crown to his son Nawder. This latter followed not the precepts of his father: his subjects revolted, and his kingdom being invaded by Afrasiâb, the son of Pecheng, king of Touran, he fell into the hands of his opponent and was put to death, after a reign of only seven years. Afrasiab then quitted the province of Dahestán, which had been the theatre of the war, and entered by Rei into Iran, where he placed the crown of the schahs upon his own head. During this invasion of Afrasiâb, Zal, the son and successor of Sam, had taken upon him, in his turn, the defence of the dynasty of Feridoun, and had caused a member of the race to be proclaimed schah: this was Zou, son of Thamasp. Du

jects into four castes, and during three hundred years reigned in the utmost prosperity and power, until his pride impelled him to revolt against the deity. Dzohak' was at this time prince of the Tasi, and held communication with the evil genii. He collected together the subjects of Djemschid, who had abandoned their sovereign since his altered course of conduct, put himself at their head, dethroned Djemschid, and deprived him of existence after a reign of seven hundred years. Dzohûk' reigned a thousand years. His tyranny reduced Persia to the utmost wretchedness. By the malice of the evil spirits, two serpents sprang from his shoulders and remained attached to them. To appease their craving appetites, they had to be fed every day with the brains of men. By an adroit stratagem, the cooks of the palace saved each day one of the two persons destined thus to afford nourishment to the serpents, and sent him to the mountains: it is from these fugitives, say the traditions of Persia, that the Kurds of the present day derived their origin. A dream forewarned the sanguinary Dzohâk' of the lot that awaited him, and of the vengeance that would be inflicted on him by Feridoun, the son of one of his victims. He caused diligent search to be made for the formidable infant, but the mother of Feridoun, who had given him to the divine cow Pour-mayeh to be nursed, saved herself and her child by fleeing to Mount Albrouz, in the north of India. There Feridoun was brought up by a Parsi. Having attained the age of sixteen years, he descend-ring five years the country was exposed to the ravages ed from the mountain and rejoined his mother, who of war, and afterward a general scarcity prevailed. made him acquainted with the story of his birth and Peace was concluded; according to the terms of which misfortunes: for he was a member of the royal line, the river Gihon (Djihoun or Oxus) was declared the comwhich had been driven from the throne of Persia by mon limit of the two empires. Zou died soon after, leavthe sanguinary Dzohák'. Burning with the desire of ing as his successor his son Gerchasp, who only reigned avenging his wrongs, he seized the first opportunity nine years, and left Persia, at his death, without a masthat presented itself. A sedition broke out in Persia, ter. With him ended the dynasty of the Pischdadiheaded by a smith, who affixed his apron to the point ans.-Before proceeding to the consideration of the of a spear, and made it the standard of revolt. The second or Kaianian dynasty, we shall offer a few recontinued searches ordered by Dzohåk' had apprized marks on the one of which we have just been treating. the people both of the dream of the tyrant and the ex- The lives and reigns of 700 and 1000 years will obtain, istence of the young prince whom he persecuted. The of course, no credit now. Djemschid and Dzohak' Persians ran in crowds to their deliverer, who caused represent, in all probability, entire families.-It would the apron of the smith to be profusely adorned with be useless to compare the Greek traditions with the gold and precious stones, adopted it as the royal stand- monstrous recital of the Schah nameh, through which ard, and named it Direfch-gawány; and this standard we have just passed. These recitals, having only been continued to be in after ages an object of the greatest collected under the Sassanides, have reached us full veneration throughout all the empire of Persia. Feri- of fable and improbability. It will be safer and more doun immediately marched against the tyrant, crossed reasonable to limit ourselves to some general approxithe Tigris where Bagdad now stands, proceeded to mations. The Greek historians mention three princiBeit-ul-makaddes, the residence of Dzohâk', conquered pal facts: 1. The existence of a vast empire, known his antagonist, and confined him with massive fetters among them by the name of the Assyrian empire; 2. in a cavern of Mount Damawend. The two sisters of The overthrow of this empire by the Medes; 3. The Djemschid, Chehrnius and Amewas, had been the fav- frequent incursions of the Scythian tribes from the reourite wives of Dzohâk'. Feridoun found them, though gion of Caucasus, from the vicinity of the Caspian, and after the lapse of a thousand years, still young enough from the Oxus. These three grand movements may to espouse. He had by them three sons, whom he be traced without difficulty in the Persian traditions. married to three princesses of Yemen. The eldest In fact, the theatre of the first four reigns of the Schahwas Selm, the second Tour, and the youngest Iredj. nameh is, beyond a doubt, Media, where was established He divided the earth among them. Selm received the worship of fire by Houcheng. Kaïoumaratz and Roum and Khawer, that is to say, Greece, Asia Minor, his successors were then a Median dynasty dethroned and Egypt. Tour obtained Tourán and Djin, that is, by Dzohâk, a Tasi or Arab prince, and who began what the country beyond the Oxus and China. Iredj be- is called by the Greeks the Assyrian empire. The came master of Persia (Iran) and Arabia. Dissatis- word Tasi designates, at the present day, the inhabified with this division, the first two made an inroad, at tants of Arabia; but there is nothing to prevent the the head of an army, into Persia; slew Fredj, who belief that anciently it was applied to all the people of had come to their camp for the purpose of appeasing the Semitic race, and consequently to the Assyrians. them, and sent his head to Feridoun. The afflicted The new dynasty of Dzohâk', so detested by the Ira father prayed the gods to prolong his life until he nians, because it was composed of strangers, and could avenge the death of his son. Only one of the brought in with it an impure and devilish worship, wives of Iredj proved with child; she gave birth to a was probably none other than that of the Assyrian daughter, whom Feridoun united to Menoutchehr, his princes, who, according to the Greek writers, were brother's son. He brought him up in wisdom, and, masters of all Persia as far as the Indus and Oxus when he had reached the age of manhood, gave this (Djihoun or Gihon). Feridoun himself, who, accordMenoutchehr the throne. Selm and Tour, having en- ing to the Schah-nameh, dethroned and imprisoned deavoured, but in vain, to appease their irritated father, Dzohak', will be the representative of the new dynasdetermined to have recourse to arms. Their forces,ty of the Medes, which commenced with Dejoces and

he states that Kai K'aous was the son of Aphra and grandson of Kai K'obad. It would appear, moreover, that the history of Kai Kaous, as given by Frdousi, is at one and the same time that of Cyarares and Astyages. The blindness of Kai K'aous and his army is probably nothing else but the total eclipse of the sun, which took place between Cyaxares and the Lydians, and which had been predicted to the Ionians by Thales. The expedition against Hamawer appears to coincide with the siege of Nineveh mentioned by the Greek writers; and these same writers also agree with Firdousi, when they make the operations of the siege to have been broken off by an invasion of the Scythians. The statement also, made by Herodotus, respecting the marriage of Astyages with the daughter of the Lydian monarch, agrees with that of the Persian author, who informs us of the marriage of Kai Khosrou with Sendabeh. With regard to Kai Khosre, or simply Khosrou, it appears evident that he was the same with the Cyrus of the Greek writers. Khosrow, however, according to Firdousi, was not the grandson of the schah of Persia, but of Afrasiab, king of To ran, and the scene of the history of his youth is laid entirely in this latter country. After Kai Khosro, the narrative of the Mohammedan writers begins to differ totally from that of the Greeks. Down to the time of Alexander, there are only two points of resem blance between the two statements: the first is the name of Gouchtasp, who is the Darius Hystaspis of the Greeks; and the other, that of Ardecheer Duraz dest (Artaxerxes Longimanus), given to Bahmen of the Schah-nameh by Mirkhond. (Klaproth, Tabicazz Historiques de l'Asie, &c., p. 5, seqq.)

3. Later history of Persia.

overthrew the Assyrian empire. The Assyrian princes, | no mention of this monarch; he probably confounds or Tasi, did not inhabit Jerusalem, as one might be his reign with that of his father. Nevertheless, a Moinclined to suppose from the name Beit-ul-makaddes, hammedan author mentions this second Phraortes, and "the holy dwelling," given by Firdousi to their residence, and which is that by which the Arabs designate the capital of the Jews. The Persian poet himself gives us the requisite information on this point, by adding that Beit-ul-makaddes also bore the Tasi name of Hameh-el-Harran. It was probably, therefore, Harran, in Mesopotamia, in the region called Diar Modzár. According to traditions still existing, this city was built a short time after the deluge; and it is regarded by the people of the East as one of the most ancient in the world. Albrouz is the ancient name of the great chain of mountains which commences on the west of the Cimmerian Bosporus, borders the Caspian Sea to the southeast and south, and, proceeding eastward, joins the Himalayan chain which separates Hindoostan from Thibet. It comprehends, therefore, the Caucasus of our days, the mountains of Ghilan, Mount Damawend, the chain of Chorasan, and the Paropamisus or Hendu-Khos. Feridoun, coming from Media to found the new Median empire on the ruins of the Assyrian, descended Mount Albrouz. Eastern Persia, comprising Sedjestȧn and Zaboulistân, which is the country of Ghizneh, was subject to the schah, but governed under him by the princes of the race of Sam. As to Kaboul, it was only tributary, and belonged to a branch of the family of Dzohak', that is, to princes of Assyrian origin who had treated with the Medes. The third analogy between the Greek and Persian traditions is found in the inroads of barbarous tribes from Eastern Persia. The incursions of the Scythian Nomades, mentioned by the Greek writers, will agree very well with those of the princes of Touran, coming from beyond the Djihoun or Oxus. From the earliest periods, Persia has been exposed to invasion from the tribes in the direction of Caucasus, the Caspian, and the Oxus. The Greeks called all these tribes Scythians, because they had no other name by which to designate these barbarous communities. The Persians call them Turan and Djin (Turks and Chinese), although at this time (700 B.C.) neither the one nor the other of the two lastmentioned people were to be found on the eastern borders of Persia. When, however, the Schah-nameh was composed, the Persians knew only the Turks and Chinese, and they gave their names to all those who had at any time preceded them. The ancient enemies of Persia, in this quarter, were probably Hunnic and Tudesc tribes, to whom, about the era of the Sassan-is again brought on the scene, and Isfundeer is slain ides, succeeded the Turks and Chinese.-The main by him in an unjust war, in which he had reluctantly fact that results from a comparison of these traditions engaged, at the command of his wicked father, with is, that two empires followed in succession: one, com- the king of Segistan. It is from the Western histo ing from Assyria, ruled over Media and all Eastern rians only that we learn anything of the leading events Asia; the other, coming from Media, reacted on the of the reign of Darius Hystaspis. In like manner, all first, and drove the Semitic communities across the the great events of the history of Xerxes, which form Tigris and Euphrates; and, finally, to these two great the most brilliant page in the history of Greece, are revolutions were joined frequent inroads on the part of passed over in silence in the Persian annals. The the barbarous tribes coming from Caucasus, Scythia, assassination of Xerxes, by his relative Artabanus, and the banks of the Oxus.-To the Pischdadian suc- took place B.C. 461, in the twenty-first year of his ceeded the Kaianian dynasty. The recital of the reign. He was succeeded by his third son, ArtaSchah-nameh respecting this second dynasty is as dis- xerxes Longimanus, the Bahmen or Ardecheer Difigured by fable as that which treats of the first; and razdest of the Persian annals, and the Ahasuerus of it would be of no use to seek in it any exact coinci- the book of Esther. Something like a disguised or dences with the narratives of Xenophon and Herodo- confused account of these transactions is found in tus. The Dejoces of the latter historian was, like Kai the pages of Firdousi. After Isfundeer had subdued K'obad, chosen king on account of his justice and all the foreign enemies of his father Gouchtasp, he is wisdom, at a time when Persia was involved in mis-sent to reduce to obedience the King of Segistan, ery and anarchy. We find also another resemblance had thrown off his allegiance. In this expedition between Dejoces and Kai Kobad. Kai Kohad is is represented as engaging with the greatest reluc called Arch by some Mohammedan authors, and De- tance, and he meets his death from the hand of Rous joces is called Arcaces by Ctesias. Herodotus in- tem, to whom, nevertheless, the dying hero commits forms us that Dejoces had for his successor a son his son, Bahmen, entreating him to educate him as a named Phraortes, and it is to this Median prince that warrior. That son, however, on ascending the throne, he ascribes the conquest of Persia. Firdousi makes soon became jealous of Roustem, and, having invaded

The accession of Darius Hystaspis is fixed by chronologists in the year 521 B.C.; and in his reign, sup posing him to be the same with Gouchtasp, all author ities seem to agree that the famous Zerdusht, the Zoroaster of the western writers, succeeded in establish ing his new religion. The reign of Gouchtasp is extended by the Persian historians over sixty years, that of Xerxes, his son and successor, being wholly passed over; but Isfundeer, who is supposed by Sir John Malcolm to be the same as Xerxes, is made the hero of his reign. His chivalrous achievements are rivalled only by those of the illustrious Roustem, who

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