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lately appeared. In the third place, Menander, the disciple of Simon Magus, departed little from the footsteps of his master. All three left behind them sects which continued for several centuries. The followers of Simon and Menander were often confounded with Christians by the heathen,10 and actually endeavoured to insinuate themselves into the Christian church after Christianity had become the prevailing religion."

§ 19.

RELATION OF THE TIMES TO CHRISTIANITY IN ITS INFANCY.

From the view that has been given it may be seen, that the popular religions of the heathen had become superannuated at the time of Christ, and that unbelief and superstition were on the point of putting an end to all true religion. It is further apparent, that Judaism, losing more and more its spiritual character, threatened to sink down in externalities. Under these circumstances many heathens must have longed for a religion which put an end to their doubts and agitations, satisfied the demands of their moral nature, and afforded them consolation and inward peace. The circumstance of Christianity coming from the east, whose mystical religions had at that time attracted general attention to itself, must have facilitated at least the introduction of it. Nor could it be otherwise than that many Jews felt the emptiness of their ceremonial service, especially as they had been already guided to a more spiritual worship of God by many passages in their own prophets. On the other hand, expectations of the Messiah prepared the way for Christianity among the Jews.

But, however much there was in the circumstances of these times which must have promoted Christianity, there was not less to obstruct it. Among the Jews, national pride, earthly hopes

siarch. In the Clementines he is the representative of Gnosis generally, and the system there attributed to him is a compound of the most striking Gnostic positions, and must not be considered genuine (see Baur's christl. Gnosis, p. 302).

9 Mosheim, 1. c. 432-438. 10 Justin. apol. ii. p. 70.

11 Regarding the Simonians sce Euseb. hist. eccl. ii. 1, 4. For the Menandrians, iii. 26, 2.

of Messiah, and habituation to an almost external religion; among the heathen, unbelief as well as superstition, which prevailed at this time, the stain attaching to Jewish origin, and the political grounds which, in the universal opinion, rendered it necessary to abide by the national religion. Christianity could reckon on toleration on the part of the state, agreeably to the principles of the Romans, only as long as it was confined to the Jewish people. But a religion which, like the Jewish, did not only declare all other national religions false, but was likewise gathering adherents among all nations in a much greater degree than the Jewish, and was threatening to extinguish all others, could not be endured by the Roman government without an abandonment of the old state religion. The toleration which all philosophical systems and foreign superstitions found at Rome could not, therefore, be expected by Christianity;' for an external observance of the state religion was at least consistent with the nature of such systems and superstitions.2

FIRST CHAPTER.

THE LIFE OF JESUS.

J. J. Hess Lebensgeschichte Jesu, 3 Bde. Ste Aufl. Zürich 1822-23, 8. The same: Lehre, Thaten, und Schicksale unseres Herrn, von verschiedenen Seiten beleuchtet, 2 Hälften, 3te Aufl. Zürich 1817, 8. J. G. Herder vom Erlöser der Menschen nach unsern 3 ersten Evangelien, Riga 1796, 8. The same: von Gottes Sohn der Welt Heiland, nach Johannis Evangel. Riga 1797, 8. H. E. G. Paulus das Leben Jesu, als Grundlage einer reinen Gesch. d. Urchristenthums, Heidelb. 1828, 2 Bde. 8. Dr

1 Although the Christian apologists often appeal to it, Justini M. apol. maj. c. 18, 24, 26. Tertulliani apologeticus, c. 24, 46.

In opposition to the wrong views taken by Voltaire, Traité sur la tolérance 1763, c. 8-10, (Oeuvres éd. Deux-Ponts. Tom. 40, p. 271 ss.), relative to the toleration of the Romans, and the exclusive fault of the Christians in bringing persecutions on themselves, Hegewisch made very just remarks in his treatise on the epoch in Roman history most favourable to humanity. Hamburg 1800, P. 173.

A. Hase das Leben Jesu. Ein Lehrbuch zunächst für akadem. Vorlesungen, Leipz. 1829, 3te Aufl. 1840, 8.-Dr Strauss's Leben Jesu has given a new shock to a scientific treatment of the subject, Tübingen 1835-36, 4te Aufl. 1840, 2 Bde. 8. The fruits of it are especially A. Neander's Leben Jesu Christi, Hamburg 1837, (4te Aufl. 1845), 8. Chr. F. v. Ammon Gesch. d. Lebens Jesu mit steter Rücksicht auf die vorhandenen Quellen, Bd. 1, Leipzig 1842, 8.

F. V. Reinhard Versuch über den Plan, den der Stifter der christl. Religion zum Besten der Menschen entwarf, 5te Ausg. with additions by Heubner, Wittemb. 1830, 8. G. J. Planck Gesch. d. Christenth. in der Periode seiner ersten Einführung in die Welt durch Jesum und die Apostel. Göttingen 1818, 2 Bde. 8.

J. A. G. Meyer Versuch einer Vertheidigung und Erlaüterung der Geschichte Jesu und der Apostel ellein aus griech. und röm. Profanscribenten, Hannover 1805, 8.

§ 20.

CHRONOLOGICAL DATA RESPECTING THE LIFE OF JESUS.

J. F. Wurm's astron. Beiträge zur genäherten Bestimmung des Geburts u. Todesjahres Jesu, in Bengel's Archiv. für d. Theol. II. 1, 261. R. Anger de temporum in Actis Apost. ratione diss. c. 1, de anno quo Jesus in coelum ascenderit, Lips. 1830, 8. F. Piper de externa vitæ J. Chr. chronologia recte constituenda, Gottingae 1835, 4. K. Wieseler's chronolog. Synopse der vier Evangelien, Hamburg 1843, 8.1

1 According to Wieseler, Christ was born in February 750 a.u. (4 b. c.), baptized in spring or summer 780, (27 A.D.), crucified on the 7th April 783, (30 A.D.). A work so acute and learned as that of Wieseler cannot be sufficiently characterised in a few words. The exact coincidence, however, of different investigations produces more doubt than conviction, since the separate data may be bent, on account of their vacillating nature, in subservience to one object, without completely removing scruples in regard to them. In particular, woel, in Luke iii. 23, p. 126, appears to be taken too strictly; it is incredible that the chronological designation of Luke iii. 1, should reach to the captivity of the Baptist,

The only definite date in the evangelical history is in Luke iii. 1, relating to the appearance of John the Baptist. On the supposition that Jesus appeared in public half a year after John, as he was born half a year after him, the designation of his age in Luke iii. 23 gives nearly the time of his birth, which, perhaps, may be still more closely determined by the circumstance that it must have happened before the death of Herod, († shortly before the passover, 750 A.U.) .atth. ii. 1, 19.4 Even in the first centuries accounts of the year of Jesus' birth are given ;5 but the Romish abbot Dionysius Exiguus (525), reckoned, inde

p. 197; and the computation of the Jewish calendar, borrowed by Wurm for the purpose of ascertaining the year of Jesus' death, appears to be wholly uncertain, according to Wurm's explanations.

2 Doubtful chronological dates are: Luc. i. 5, èønμepla 'Aßiá, (cf. 1 Chron. xxiv. 10. Jos. Scaliger de emendat. temporum. App. p. 54. Wieseler, s. 140. Comp. Paulus Comm. über die drei ersten Evang. i. 36 ff. Luc. ii. 2, the Census of Quirinus, (cf. Jos. Ant. XVIII. i. 1. Paulus, i. 141 ff. On the contrary, P. A. E. Huschke über den zur Zeit d. Geburt J. Chr. gehaltenen Census, Breslau 1840, 8 Wieseler S. 49. Comp. Hoeck's röm. Gesch. vom Verfall d. Republik b. Constantin. i. ii. 412).—Joh. ii. 20. The building of the temple, (cf. Jos. Ant. xv. 11, 1; xx. 9, 7. Lampe, Paulus, and Lücke on John. Wieseler, s. 165.)

3 Augustus died 19th August, the year 14 of our era, and thus the 15th year of Tiberius's reign fell between the 19th August 28 and the 19th August 29, (781-A.U.c.), Wurm in Bengel's Archiv. ii. 5.

* On the year of Herod's death see Klaiber's Studien d. evangel. Geistlichkeit Wirtembergs, i. 1. 50. Wurm in the same, i. ii. 208. A list of the various opinions concerning the year of Christ's birth may be seen in Fabricii bibliographia antiquaria, ed. 2, Hamb. 1716, 4to. p. 187 ss. continued in F. Münter's der Stern der Weisen u. s. w. Kopenh. 1827, p. 109. The latest important investigations unite in the year 747 A.U. So Henr. Sanclementii de vulgaris aerea emendatione, libb. iv. Romae 1793, fol. solely on historical grounds. Münter, on the same grounds, and, also, because he regards with Keppler the star of the wise men as the great conjunction of the planets Jupiter and Saturn in Pisces, which happened on that year. Ideler chronol. ii. 394 ff. Piper 1. c. Schubert Lehrb. d. sternenkunde, s. 227, Winer bibl. Realwörterbuch, ii. 614, assent to these results. Compare, however, on the other side, Wurm in Klaiber's Studien, i. ii. 211 ff.

5 Irenaeus, iii. 25, and Tertull. adv. Jud. 8, give the 41st year of Augustus 751 A.U. On the other hand, Clemens. Alex. Strom. i. p. 339, the 28th year, (namely, after the conquest of Egypt,) with whom agrees Euseb. hist. eccl. i. 5. Epiphan. haer. li. 22, and Orosius histor. i. 1, the 42d year, 752 A.U.-Sulpicius Severus hist. sacr. ii. 27, gives the 33d year of Herod, Coss. Sabinus and Rufinus, (which does not suit, as Sab.

pendently of them, the period of the incarnation for the purpose of fixing by it the years in his table for Easter, making the first year from the incarnation coincide with the year 754 A.U. of the Varronian computation. This Dionysian era, applied first of all under the Anglo-Saxons,7 then by the Frankish kings Pepin and Charlemagne, begins at least four years after the true date of Christ's birth. The day of birth cannot be determined.

The ministry of Jesus was supposed by many of the older church fathers, after the example of the Alexandrians, to have continued one year, agreeably to Isaiah lxi. 1, 2, comp. Luke iv. 19, (énavтòv kupioυ DEKTOV).10 On this was founded the hypothe

and Ruf. were consuls 751 A.U., Herod died after a reign of 37 years, 750 A. U. An Egyptian monk Panodorus (after 400) placed the birth of Christ in the year 5493 of his aera, i.e., 754 A.U. (Ge. Syncelli chronographia, ed. Paris, p. 25, 326.)

The Incarnatio, odpкwois, always means in the fathers the annunciation. Dionysius, therefore, placed the birth of Christ in the conclusion of the first year of his era. When first, about the time of Charlemagne, the beginning of the year was made to coincide with the 25th of December, the incarnation appears to have been taken as synonymous with the nativity. See Sanclementius, iv. c. 8. Ideler's chronologie, ii. 381 ff.

7 Ethelbert, king of Kent, dated first of all an original document anno ab incarnatione Christi DCV. cf. Codex diplomaticus aevi Saxonici, opera J. M. Kemble, T. i. (Lond. 1839, 8.) p. 2. Afterwards the venerable Bede used this era in his historical works.

G. A. Hamberger de epochae christianae ortu et auctore, Jenae 1688, 4. (in Martini thesaur. dissertatt. T. iii. P. i. p. 241). Jo. G. Jani. historia aerae Dionysianae, Viteb. 1715, 4. (also in his opuscula ad hist. et chronolog. spectantia ed. Klotz, Halae 1769). Ideler's Chronologie, ii. 366 ff.

9 Clem. Alex. Strom. i. p. 340, relates, that some regarded the 25th of Pachon (20th May), others the 24th or 25th Pharmuthi (the 19th or 20th April), as the birth-day. After the 6th of January, solemnized as a day of baptism by the followers of Basilides, was kept by the Oriental Christians since the third century as the day of baptism and birth, people began to keep this day as the true day of birth (Epiphan. haer. li. 21). After the 25th December was solemnized in the fourth century in the west, as the birth-festival, this day came soon to be looked upon as the day of birth (Sulpic. Sever. hist. sacr. ii. 27).

10 So the Valentinians (Irenaeus ii. 38, 39), in opposition to whom Irenaeus puts forth the singular assertion that Jesus was baptised in his thirtieth year, but did not appear as a teacher till between his fortieth and fiftieth (John viii. 57), and then taught three years. One year, however, was adopted by Clem. Alex. Strom. i. 340. Origenes hom. 32 in Lucam, and de princip. iv. On the other hand, c. Cels. ii. p. 397,

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