itself is a very stormy way in cases where the punishment of death, which the Christians at that time regarded with horror, was decreed.10 In like manner the acknowledgment of this right of the clergy facilitated the transfer of the right of asylum from heathen temples to the Christian churches." All these rights cordiae, et graviora inferre vulnera, dum levioribus mederi desideramus. cap. 29: Egregie hinc vestrum enitescit ministerium, si suscepta impressio potentis, quam vel vidua vel orphani tolerare non queant, Ecclesiae subsidio cohibeatur, si ostendatis plus apud vos mandatum Domini, quam divitis valere gratiam. Meministes ipsi, quoties adversus regales impetus pro viduarum, immo omnium, depositis certamen subierimus. Commune hoc vobiscum mihi. cf. Thomassini vetus et nova ecclesiae disciplina de beneficiis, p. ii. 1. iii. c. 87, and c. 95, 96. Bingham, lib. ii. c. 8.

10 Macedonius, vicar of the diocese of Africa, writes respecting it to Augustine, (August. ep. 152): Officium sacerdotii vestri esse dicitis, intervenire pro reis, et nisi obtineatis, offendi, quasi quod erat officii vestri, minime reportetis. Hic ergo vehementer ambigo, utrum istud ex religione descendat. Nam si a Domino peccata adeo prohibentur, ut ne poenitendi quidem copia post primum tribuatur; quemadmodum nos possumus ex religione contendere, ut nobis qualecumque illud crimen. fuerit, dimittatur ? quod utique, cum impunitum volumus, probamus, &c. To this Augustine replies, ep. 153, ex. gr. § 3: Morum corrigendorum nullus alius quam in hac vita locus est.-Ideo compellimur humani generis caritate intervenire pro reis, ne istam vitam sic finiant per supplicium, ut ea finita non possint finire supplicium. Noli ergo dubitare hoc officium nostrum ex religione descendere, &c. Comp. the intercession for the Circumcelliones who were to have been executed for murders, August. ep. 133, ad Marcellinum Tribunum: Si non audis amicum petentem, audi Episcopum consulentem. Quamvis quoniam Christiano loquar, maxime in tali causa, non arroganter dixerim, audire te Episcopum convenit jubentem. Against violent interferences of the clergy, as they took place for example in Antioch, (Chrysostomi ep. ad Olympiadem, and orat. ad popul. Antioch. 17,) Theodosius I. A.D. 392, and Arcadius, A.D. 398, enacted laws, (Cod. Theod. ix. xl. 15 and 16). The latter Addictos supplicio, et pro criminum immanitate damnatos, nulli Clericorum vel Monachorum-per vim atque usurpationem vindicare liceat ac tenere. Quibus in causa criminali humanitatis consideratione, si tempora suffragantur, interponendae provocationis copiam non negamus.-Reos tempore provocationis emenso ad locum poenae sub prosecutione pergentes, nullus aut teneat aut defendat.-Si tanta Clericorum ac Monachorum audacia est, ut bellum potius quam judicium futurum esse existimetur, ad Clementiam Nostram commissa referantur, ut nostro mox severior ultio pocedat arbitrio. Ad Episcoporum sane culpam redundabit, si quid forte in ea parte regionis, in qua ipsi populo christianae religionis, doctrinae insinuatione, moderantur, ex his, quae fieri hac lege prohibemus, a Monachis perpetratum esse cognoverint, nec vindicaverint.

"At first merely through custom, (examples, Ammian. Marcell. xxvi.

had long since grown naturally out of the old ecclesiastical notions. before the emperors began to confirm them severally by laws.12

On the other side, ecclesiastical possessions became very considerable, partly by the liberality of the emperors,13 partly by the legal permission to accept of inheritances and gifts, which, alas, was often abused by the clergy, so as to become legacyhunting. All these external advantages attracted many to the

14

3. Zosimus, iv. 40; v. 8. Gregor. Naz. orat. xx. in laudem Basilli, opp. i. 353, &c.) which is referred to as already in existence in the restrictive laws of Theodosius I. and Arcadius, (Cod. Theod. ix. 45, 1—3,) and formerly confirmed and strictly defined by Theodosius II. in the year 431, (ibid. 1. 4). Bingham, vol. iii. p. 353 ss. (Abele) Magazin für Kirchenrecht u. Kirchengesch. St. 1. (Leipz. 1778, 8.) S. 189 ss.

12 So Constantini lex A.D. 329. (Cod. Justin. i. iv. 25 : Quae de alea, sive ut vocant cottis, ac de eorum prohibitione a nobis sancita sunt, ea liceat Dei amicissimis Episcopis et perscrutari, et cohibere, si fiant, et flagitiosos per clarissimos Praesides provinciarum, et Patres defensoresque civitatum ad modestiam reducere. Honorii, A.D. 408. (Cod. Theod. xvi. x. 19, in reference to all kinds of idolatry: Episcopis quoque locorum haec ipsa prohibendi ecclesiasticae manus tribuimus facultatem, A.D. 409, (Cod. Theod. ix. iii. 7,) after the judges had been admonished to treat the prisoners more humanely: Nec deerit Antistitum christianae religionis cura laudabilis, quae ad observationem constituti judicis hanc ingerat monitionem. cf. Cod. Theod. v. v. 2 ; v. vii. 2 ; xv. viii. 2. cf. C. W. de Rhoer dissertt. de effectu religionis christ. in jurispruden. tiam Rom. (Fasc. i. Groningae 1776, 8,) p. 94 ss.

13 Particularly out of the parochial property of the cities (see § 75, note 9), the property of the heathen temples (Cod. Theod. xvi. x. 20) and of heretical churches (Cod. Th. xvi. v. 43, 52, 57, 65, &c.) Hilarius contra Constantium jam vita defunctum, c. 10: Auro reipublicae sanctum Dei honoras, et vel detracta templis vel publicata edictis, vel exacta poenis Deo ingeris.

14 So Gregory Naz. ep. 80, remarks, while admonishing Aerius and Alypius to pay the legacy of their mother into the church, Ốтɩ Toλλοὶ καὶ ὅλων οἴκων ἐμποιουμένων εἰς Ἐκκλησίας ἠνέσχοντο, οἱ δὲ καὶ παρ' ἑαυτῶν πᾶσαν προσήγοντο τὴν περιουσίαν καὶ τὴν καλλίστην ἐπραγματεύαντο πραγματείαν, γενέσθαι διὰ τὸν ἐκεῖ πλοῦτον πένητες μὴ τοίνυν σπείρητε φειδομένως, ἵνα πλουσίως θερήσητε,πάντα μεθ ̓ ἡδονῆς καὶ φαιδρότητος ἐπιδόντης, ἢ ἀποδόντες ὡς οἰκεῖα τὰ τοῦ θεοῦ. On the other hand, Valentiniani i. lex. A.D. 370, ad Damasum Episc. urbis Rom. (Cod. Theod. xvi. ii. 20): Ecclesiastici, aut ex Ecclesiasticis, vel qui continentium se volunt nomine nuncupari, viduarum ac pupillarium domos non adeant: sed publicis exterminentur judiciis, si posthac eos adfines earum vel propinqui putaverint deferendos. Censemus etiam, ut memorati nihil de ejus mulieris, cui re privatim sub praetextu religionis adjunxerint, liberalitate quacunque, vel extremo judicio possint adipisci, et omne in tantum ineffi cax sit, quod alicui horum ab his fuerit derelictum, ut nec per subjectam personam valeant aliquid, vel donatione vel testamento, percipere, &c.

spiritual profession,15 the number of clergy was swelled beyond measure, and to the already existing classes were added parabolani, copiatae.16 The emperors were obliged to meet this pressure, which became dangerous to the state, with stringent laws."7 Under these circumstances the power of the bishops particularly rose. At the head of a numerous clergy completely subject to them, they alone had power to decide on the appropriation of the church estates,18 and possessed ecclesiastical legislation by their exclusive privilege of having a voice at synods. Hence they continued to make the country bishops more subservient to them;19 to the other bishops in cities and in the country, (ecclesia ple

On this subject Jerome epist. 34 (al. 2) ad Nepotianum: Nec de lege conqueror, sed doleo, cur meruerimus hanc legem. Cauterium bonum est, sed quo mihi vulnus, ut indigeam cauterio? Provida severaque legis cautio, et tamen nec sic refraenatur avaritia. Comp. the laws of Theodosius ii. 1. c. 1. 27 and 28.

15 In a one-sided way Athanasius, hist. Arian. ad Monachos, c. 78, designates only the Meletian clergy as οἱ μὲν ἐξ εἰδώλων ἐλθόντες, οἱ δὲ ἐκ τοῦ βουλευτηρίου, καὶ τῆς πρώτης πολιτείας, διὰ τὴν ταλαίπωρον ἀλειτουργησίαν Kal TроσTαolay. Basilius, ep. 54, blames his country bishops on account of their subservience to men, τῶν πλείστων φόβῳ τῆς στρατολογίας εἰσποιούντων ἑαυτοὺς τῇ ὑπηρεσία.

16 In the work entitled de septem ordinibus Ecclesiae (opp. ed. Martian. v. 100) ascribed to Jerome, the copiatae appear under the name fossarii as the lowest order of the clergy. According to a law of Theodosius II. A.D. 416 (Cod. Theod. xvi. ii. 42) no more than 500 parabolani were to be in Alexandria. In the year 418 he permitted 600 (ibid. 1. 43). The same emperor reduced the number of copiatae in Constantinople from 1100 to 950 (Cod. Just. i. ii. 4.)

17 Constantine's law to this effect before the year 320 (Cod. Theod. xvi. ii. 3): Nullum deinceps Decurionem, vel ex Decurione progenitum, vel etiam instructum idoneis facultatibus, atque obeundis publicis muneribus opportunum, ad Clericorum nomen obsequiumque confugere: sed eos de cetero in defunctorum duntaxat Clericorum loca subrogari, qui fortuna tenues, neque muneribus civilibus teneantur obstricti. Constantius allowed in 361 (Cod Th. xii. i. 49) every curialis admission into the clerical office, curia promente consensum, maxime si totius populi vocibus expetatur: otherwise he should give over his property to his children, or relatives, or the senate. This resigning of goods became afterwards a general law (Cod. Th. xii. i. 59, 99, 104, 115, 121, 123, 163, 172, &c.) Riffel, i. 164.

18 Riffel, i. 128.

19 See Div. i. § 68, note 2. Conc. Antioch. ann. 341, can. 10: TOÙS χωρεπισκόπους, εἰ καὶ χειροθεσίαν εἶεν ἐπισκόπων εἰληφότες, ἔδοξε τῇ ἁγίᾳ συνόδῳκαθιστῶν ἀναγνώστης καὶ ὑποδιακόνους καὶ ἐφορκιστὰς,—μήτε δὲ πρεσβύτερον μήτε διάκονον χειροτονεῖν τολμῶν δίχα τοῦ ἐν τῇ πόλει ἐπισκόπου, ῇ ὑπόκεινται αὐτός τε καὶ ἡ χώρα,χωρεπίσκοπον δὲ γίνεσθαι ὑπὸ τοῦ τῆς

21

bana, titulus), except the head church (eccl. cathedralis) they sent according to their own free choice, presbyters (parochus, plebanus),20 to conduct the worship of God, who were entirely dependent on them even in the matter of maintenance. The first person next to the bishop was the archdeacon, who helped him to manage the revenues. The arch-presbyters, 22 an order which arose about the same time, were of far inferior rank. All the lower clergy, and the presbyters too, were now chosen by the bishop alone. The choice of bishops mostly depended on the other bishops of the provinces, except when the emperors interfered. Still, however, the consent of the people was required, and was not without weight, especially in the west.2

23

Under these external advantages, it is not surprising that the prevailing notions of priestly dignity, and especially of the bishops' authority rose higher and higher; and that the bishops externally enjoyed the highest demonstrations of respect, their claims as the vicars of Christ and the successors of the apostles being capable of indefinite development. Yet their overweening pride often gave just cause for complaint.25

πόλεως, ἡ ὑπόκειται, ἐπισκόπου, Conc. Laodiceni (between 320 and 372) Can. 57 : ὅτι οὐ δεῖ ἐν ταῖς κώμαις, καὶ ἐν ταῖς χώραις καθίστασθαι ἐπισκό πους, ἢ ἀλλὰ περιοδευτάς· τοὺς μέντοι ἤδη προκατασταθέντας μηδὲν πράττειν ἄνευ γνώμης τοῦ ἐπισκόπου τοῦ ἐν τῇ πόλει. ὡσαύτως δὲ καὶ τοὺς πρεσβυτέρους μηδὲν πράττειν ἄνευ τῆς γνώμης τοῦ ἐπισκόπου. Probably it was not meant by this canon to do away with the existing country bishops, but only to prevent the establishment of new bishoprics. Accordingly, we find frequent mention of country bishops long after. Basil the Great had 50 in his diocese (Gregor. Naz. de vita sua, p. 8), Theodoret, ep. 113, names two of his suburbans, &c.

20 Thomassini vetus et nova eccles. disciplin. p i. lib. 2, c. 21 ss. Bingham, lib. ix. c. 8, vol. iii. p. 590. 21 Thomassini, p. i. lib. 2, c. 17. Bingham, vol. i. p. 338. J. G. Pertsch Abhandl. v. d. Ursprunge der Archidiaconen, 2 c. Hildesheim 1743, 8.

22 Thomassini, p. i. lib. 2, c. 3. Bingham, vol. i. p. 301.

23 The bishop was chosen Επισκόπων συνόδῳ, ψήφῳ Κληρικῶν, αἰτήσει Mawr (Petri Alex. epist. in Theodoreti, h. e. iv. 19). The person elected by the clergy was either accepted by the voice of the people crying out 'Agios, bene meritus, bene dignus; or they cried 'Avágios (Augustini epist. 110. Philostorgius, ix. 10. Constitut. Apost. viii. 4). Leo epist. 10, c. 3: Qui praefuturus est omnibus, ab omnibus eligatur. Thomassini, p. ii. lib. 2, c. 2 and 3. Bingham, vol. ii. p. 90 ss. Staudenmaier's Gesch. d. Bischofswahlen, S. 24. Rifel, i. 574.

24 The assertion, so pregnant with consequences, that the priesthood stands above royalty, in which during the third century nothing but a

§ 92.

DEPENDENCE OF THE HIERARCHY ON THE STATE.

Notwithstanding these outward honours enjoyed by the hierarchy, they could the less escape from a dependence on the state in many ways,' as they presented a vulnerable side to it by their inheriting property; and as the government of the Rosecret pride could take delight (Div. i. § 69, note 1), was not repeated, (see Chrysostomus, homil. 4, de verbis Isaiae, de Sacerdotio, iii. c. 1, homil. 15, in epist. ii. ad Corinth. comp. Gregor. Naz. above note 8,) but was now also outwardly manifested in the conduct. Standing titles of the bishops were Dominus beatissimus (Comp. Wigger's Augustinismus, ii. 37), or sanctissimus, reverendissimus, δεσπότης, ὁσιώτατος, αἰδεσιμώτατος. Beatitudo, Sanctitas tua, ἡ σὴ χρηστότης, μακαριότης or ἁγιότης. Marks of reverence which were paid them even by emperors were the TOKNÍVELV κεφαλήν and καταφιλεῖν τὰς χεῖρας. See Bingham, vol. i. p. 134. When Eusebia, spouse of the emperor Constantius, did not observe such things in receiving the salutations of the bishops, the Eusebian bishop of Tripolis, Leontius, declared to her (Philostorgius ap Suidam s. v. AcÓVτIOS), Λεόντιος), that he would appear before her only under the following conditions: ἵν ̓ εἰσέλθοιμι μὲν ἐγώ, σὺ δ' αὐτίκα τοῦ θρόνου τοῦ ὑψηλοῦ κατάβασα, μετ αἰδοῦς ὑπαντήσειας ἐμοὶ, καὶ τὴν κεφαλὴν ὑπόσχῃς ταῖς ἐμαῖς χερσὶν, εὐλογιῶν ἀξιουμένη· κάπειτα καθεσθείην μὲν ἂν ἐγώ, σὺ δ ̓ ἂν ἑστήκοις αἰδουμένη, ὁπόταν δὲ κελεύσαιμι, καθεδουμένη, ἡνίκα δοίην τὸ σύνθημα. Εἰ οὕτως αἱρήσῃ, ἀφικοίμην παρά σε, κ. τ. λ. Comp. the conduct of bishop Martinus at the court of Maximus. At table the emperor ordered the cup to be first presented to him (Sulp. Severus de vita Mart. c. 20), expectans atque ambiens, ut ab illius dextera poculum sumeret. Sed Martinus ubi ebibit, pateram presbytero suo tradidit, nullum scilicet existimans digniorem, qui post se biberet. At another time the empress waited on him at table (Sulp. Severi dial. ii. 6). Comp. generally: Chrysostomus de sacerdotio. The work de dignitate, found among the writings of Am brose is not by him, but by Gerbert (Sylvester ii. about 1000). See Mabillon analecta, p. 103.

25

Hieronym. ad tit. c. 1: De episcopatu intumescunt, et putant se non dispensationem Christi sed imperium consecutos.-Sciat episcopus et presbyter sibi populum conversum esse, non servum.

The two Luciferians Faustinus and Marcellinus, in libello precum, first complained of this (Bibl. PP. Lugd. v. 656): Imperatoris arbitrio Episcopi nunc ex catholicis fiunt haeretici, et iidem Episcopi ex haereticis ad fidem catholicam revertuntur. Isidorus Pelus. lib. v. ep. 268, ad Cyril. Episc.: Πάλαι μὲν ἡ ἱερωσύνη πταίουσαν τὴν βασιλείαν διωρθοῦτο καὶ ἐσωφρόνιζε, νῦν δὲ ὑπ' ἐκείνην γέγονεν, κ. τ. λ. Socrates, lib. iv. Prooem. ἀφ' οὗ χριστιανίζειν ἤρξαντο (οἱ βασιλεῖς), τὰ τῆς ̓Εκκλησίας πράγματα ἤρτητο ἐξ αὐτῶν, καὶ αἱ μέγισται Σύνοδοι τῇ αὐτῶν γνώμῃ γεγόνασί τε καὶ γίνονται.

2 Faustinus and Marcellinus, 1. c. p. 654, respecting the bishops who