that they were put in the same rank with other orthodox synods, and in answering opponents, men did not endeavour to prove that the council was oecumenical, but that its decision was true according to Scripture and tradition.

εὔχεσθε δὲ καὶ ὑπὲρ ἡμῶν ἁπάντων, ἵνα τὰ καλῶς ἔχειν δόξαντα βέβαια μένοι διὰ τοῦ κυρίου ἡμῶν Ἰησοῦ Χριστοῦ, κατ ̓ εὐδοκίαν γεγενημένα, ως γε πεπιστεύ καμεν, τοῦ θεοῦ καὶ πατρὸς ἐν πνεύματι ἁγίῳ. In Socrates, i. c. 9, this passage has been altered. Augustinus de baptismo contra Donatistas, ii. 3: Quis autem nesciat, sanctam scripturam canonicam-omnibus posterioribus Episcoporum literis ita praeponi, ut de illa omnino dubitari et disceptari non possit, utrum verum vel utrum rectum sit, quidquid in ea scriptum esse constiterit: Episcoporum autem literas-per sermonem forte sapientiorem,-et per aliorum Episcoporum graviorem auctoritatem, et per concilia licere reprehendi, si quid in eis forte a veritate deviatum est: et ipsa concilia, quae per singulas regiones vel provincias fiunt, plenariorum conciliorum auctoritati, quae fiunt ex universo orbe christiano, sine ullis ambagibus cedere: ipsaque plenaria saepe priora posterioribus emendari, quum aliquo experimento rerum aperitur quod clausum erat, et cognoscitur quod latebat, sine ullo typho sacrilegae superbiae, sine ulla inflata cervice arrogantiae, sine ulla contentione lividae invidiae, cum sancta humilitate, cum pace catholica, cum caritate christiana.

5 Constantinus epist. ad Episcopos, qui Conc. Nicaeno non interfuerunt (Euseb. de vita Const. iii. 20, and Socrates, i. 9,) says generally : πᾶν γὰρ, εἴ τι δ' ἂν ἐν τοῖς ἁγίοις τῶν ἐπισκόπων συνεδρίοις πράττηται, τοῦτο πρὸς τὴν θείαν βούλησιν ἔχει τὴν ἀναφοράν. Thus Athanasius places the Concil. Antiochen. A.D. 269, to which his opponents appealed in defence of their rejection of the term ὁμοούσιον, on an equality with the Nicene in point of theological authority. De Synodis, c. 43 : συγκρούειν μὲν γὰρ τούτους πρὸς ἐκείνους ἀπρεπές πάντες γάρ εἰσι πατέρες διακρίνειν δὲ πάλιν, ὡς οὗτοι μὲν καλῶς, ἐκεῖνοι δὲ τοὐναντίον εἰρήκασιν, οὐχ ὅσιον· οἱ πάντες γὰρ ἐκοιμήθησαν ἐν Χριστῷ. Οὐ χρὴ δὲ φιλονεικεῖν, οὐδὲ τῶν συνελθόντων τὸν ἀριθμὸν συμβάλλειν, ἵν μαὴ δοκῶσιν οἱ τριακόσιοι τοὺς ἐλάττονας ἐπικρύπτειν· οὐδ ̓ ἂν πάλιν τὸν χρόνον ἀναμετρεῖν, ἵνα μὴ δοκῶσιν οἱ προλαβόντες ἀφανίζειν τοὺς μετὰ ταῦτα γενομένους· οἱ πάντες γὰρ καθὰ προείρηται πατέρες εἰσί.

6 Augustinus contra Maximinum Arian. ii. 14, 3: Sed nunc nec ego Nicaenum, nec tu debes Ariminense tamquam praejudicaturus proferre concilium. Nec ego hujus auctoritate, nec tu illius detineris: Scripturarum auctoritatibus, non quorumque propriis, sed utrisque communibus testibus, res cum re, causa cum causa, ratio cum ratione concertet.

THIRD CHAPTER.

HISTORY OF THE HIERARCHY.

Planck's Geschichte der christl. kirchl. Gesellschaftsverfassung, i. 276. C. Riffel's gesch. Darstellung des Verhältnisses zwischen Kirche u. Staat, Mainz 1836, 8. i. 114.

§ 91.

GROWING IMPORTANCE OF THE CLERGY.

The Christian emperors enlarged the privileges already granted by Constantine to the church and the clergy (Div. i. § 56, note 30 ff.), by new tokens of their favour. They released church lands and the clergy from certain civil duties,' but by no means from all taxes; gave a legal confirmation to the decisions which the bishops pronounced in ecclesiastical affairs, and which they also gave as

1 Besides the municipal offices (see Div. 1, § 56, note 30), both the clergy and church property were freed from the muneribus sordidis and extraordinariis (cf. Cod. Theod. lib. xi. tit. 15, de extraordinariis sive sordidis muneribus, and Gothofredi paratitlon), from the metatis (Cod. Th. 1. vii. t. 8, de metatis), the angariis, and parangaris (Cod. Th. 1. viii. t. 5, de cursu publico, angariis et parangariis), and finally the immunity of the clerici negotiantes from the lustralis conlatio (Cod. Th, 1. xiii. t. 1, de lustrali conlatione, comp. Hegewisch hist. Versuch über die röm. Finanzen, S. 307 ff.) Comp. besides the works cited, Cod. Theod. 1. xvi. ii. 8, 10, &c. Comp. Binghami origg. eccl. vol. ii. p. 227. Planck, i, 289.

2 Constantine had indeed at first, in the year 315, also released the church lands from the tributis ordinariis (Cod. Theod. xi. i. 1), but they were soon after again subjected to this tribute, and when the council of Ariminum (A.D. 359) applied to Constantine, ut juga, quae videntur ad Ecclesiam pertinere, a publica functione cessarent, inquietudine desis. tente, he flatly denied the request, Cod. Theod. xvi. ii. 15. Gratian even subjected the church lands to the extraordinariis collationibus (Cod. Theod. xi. xvi. 15). So also Theodosius, 1. c. 1. 18. Honorius released them from the extraordinaria, 1. c. 1. 21, 22. Theodosius ii. subjected them again to the angariis and parangariis. Cod. Justin. i. ii. 11. Comp. Ambrosii orat. de basilicis non tradendis haereticis : Si tributum petit Imperator, non negamus. Agri ecclesiae solvunt tributum. Si agros desiderat Imperator, potestatem habet vindicandorum, nemo nostrum intervenit, &c. Riffel, i. 153.

3 Euseb. de vita Const. iv. c. 27. See below note 4. Comp. the law

chosen umpires in civil disputes allowed the clergy to be bound to this arbitration-sentence, and even put them in cases of dis

of Honorius A.D. 399, (Cod. Theod. xvi. xi. 1.): Quotiens de religione agitur, Episcopos convenit judicare, caeteras vero causas, quae ad ordinarios cognitores, vel ad usum publici juris pertinent, legibus oportet audiri.

4 Respecting these episcopal arbitration-decisions, comp. Div. i. § 69, note 6. It had been always reckoned unchristian to depart from them, and thus public opinion demanded for them the preference, so that they laid the foundation of an actio rei judicatae. This privilege has been usually ascribed to Constantine, with reference to Eusebius de vita Const. iv. 27 : toùs tŵv ἐπισκόπων ὅρους τοὺς ἐν συνόδοις ἀποφανδέντας ἐπεσφραγίζετο ὡς μὴ ἐξεῖναι τοῖς τῶν ἐδνῶν ἄρχουσι, τὰ δόξαντα παραλύειν παντὸς γὰρ εἶναι δικαστοῦ τοὺς ἱερεῖς Tоû beοû dokμwτÉρous in which σúvodos, according to Conc. Carthag. iv. c. 23, (see Div. i. § 69, note 11) is understood of the presbytery. These arbitrations, however, were not pronounced by the collegia, but by the bishop, and by him sometimes committed to individual presbyters and deacons, by Sylvanus bishop of Troas, even wholly to an honest layman (Socrates, vii. 37); see Bingham, vol. i. p. 130; and thus that passage appears to refer to the decisions and sentences of the provincial synods. Sozomen, i. c. 9, is indeed more distinct: τῶν δὲ Ἐπισκόπων ἐπικαλεῖσθαι τὴν κρίσιν ἐπέτρεψε (Κωνσταντίνος) τοῖς δικαζομένοις, ἢν βούλωνταὶ τοὺς πολιτικοὺς ἄρχοντας παραιτεῖσθαι· κυρίαν δὲ εἶναι τὴν αὐτῶν ψῆφον, καὶ κρείττω τῆς τῶν ἄλλων δικαστῶν, ὡσανεὶ παρὰ τοῦ Βασιλέως ἐξενεχθεῖσαν εἰς ἔργον δὲ τὰ κρινόμενα ἄγειν τοὺς ἄρχοντας, καὶ τοὺς διακονουμένους αὐτοῖς στρατιώτας ἀμετατρέπτους τε εἶναι τῶν Συνόδων τοὺς ὅρους. Still this seems to be only an amplified interpretation of that passage in Eusebius. The oldest law extant on the subject is A.D. 408, (Cod. Justin. i. iv. 8,) Honor et Theod. AA. Theodoro P. P. Episcopale judicium ratum sit omnibus, qui se audiri a Sacerdotibus elegerint: eamque illorum judicationi adhibendam esse reverentiam jubemus, quam vestris deferri necesse est potestatibus, a quibus non licet provocare. Per judicum quoque Officia, ne sit cassa episcopalis cognitio, definitioni executio tribuatur. cf. Augustin. in Psalm. 25, § 13, (about 415): principes saeculi tantum detulerunt Ecclesiae, ut quidquid in ea judicatum fuerit, dissolvi non possit. But as a like privilege was granted to the Jewish patriarchs as early as 398 (Cod. Theod. ii. i. 10), we may fairly assume that the Christian bishops also were earlier possessed of it. H. M. Hebenstreit hist. jurisdictionis ecclesiasticae ex legibus utriusque codicis illustrata, diss. iii. Lips. 1773 ss. 4. B. Schilling de origine jurisdictionis ecclesiasticae in causis civilibus, Lips. 1825, 4. C. F. A. Jungk de originibus et progressu episcopalis judicii in causis civilibus laicorum usque ad Justinianum. Berol. 1832, 8.

5 Conc. Carthag. iii. ann. 397, c. 9:"Item placuit, ut quisquis Episco porum, Presbyterorum, et Diaconorum, seu Clericorum, cum in Ecclesia ei crimen fuerit intentatum, vel civilis causa fuerit commota, si relicto ecclesiastico judicio, publicis judiciis purgari voluerit, etiamsi pro ipso fuerit prolata sententia, locum suum amittat, et hoc in criminali judicio. In civili vero perdat quod evicit, si locum suum obtinere voluerit.

Cui

cipline under spiritual courts, without however conceding to the bishops a civil jurisdiction.7 But the ecclesiastical

rights of the clergy, particularly the right of snperintending morals, and the right of interference on behalf of all the unfortunate, received quite another importance after they had been enim ad eligendos judices undique patet auctoritas, ipse se indignum fraterno consortio judicat, qui de universa Ecclesia male sentiendo de judicio saeculari poscit auxilium, cum privatorum Christianorum causas Apostolus ad Ecclesiam deferri, atque ibi terminari praecipiat. Conc. Calced. c. 9: Εἴ τις κληρικὸς πρὸς κληρικὸν πρᾶγμα ἔχει, μὴ καταλιμπανέτω τὸν οἰκεῖον Ἐπίσκοπον, καὶ ἐπὶ κοσμικὰ δικαστήρια κατατρεχέτω—εἰ δέ τις παρὰ ταῦτα ποιήσει, κανονικοῖς ὑποκείσθω ἐπιτιμίοις.

6 Lex Constantii (Cod. Theod. xvi. xi. 12,) a.d. 355: Mansuetudinis nostrae lege prohibemus, in judiciis Episcopos accusari.-Si quid est igitur querelarum, quod quispiam defert, apud alios potissimum Episcopos convenit explorari. Gratiani (ibid. 1. 23,) A.D. 376: Qui mos est causarum civilium, idem in negotiis ecclesiasticis obtinendus est: ut si qua sunt ex quibusdam dissensionibus, levibusque delictis, ad religionis observantiam pertinentia, locis suis, et a suae Dioceseos Synodis audiantur: exceptis quae actio criminalis ab ordinariis extraordinariisque judicibus, aut illustribus potestatibus audienda constituit. Honorii (ibid. 1. 41,) A.D. 412: Clericos non nisi apud Episcopos accusari convenit, Valentiniani, iii. (ibid. 1. 47, A.D. 425); Clericos-episcopali audientiae reservamus: fas enim non est, ut divini muneris ministri temporalium potestatum subdantur arbitrio.

7 The limits of episcopalis audientia are definitely given by Valentiniani iii. novella de episcopali judicio, A.D. 452, (ed. Gothofred. nov. Val. tit. xii. ed. Haenell nov. xxxiv.): De episcopali judicio diversorum saepe causatio est. Ne ulterius querela procedat, necesse est praesenti lege sanciri. Itaque cum inter clericos jurgium vertitur, et ipsis litigatoribus convenit, habeat, Episcopus licentiam judicandi, praeeunte tamen vinculo compromissi. Quod et laicis, si consentiant, auctoritas nostra permittit. Aliter eos judices esse non patimur, nisi voluntas jurgan tium interposita, sicut dictum est, conditione praecedat: quoniam constat, Episcopos et Presbyteros forum legibus non habere, nec de aliis causis, secundum Arcadii et Honorii divalia constituta, quae Theodosi. anum corpus ostendit, praeter religionem, posse cognoscere. Sin vero petitor laicus, seu in civili seu criminali causa, cujuslibet loci Clericum adversarium suum, si id magis eligat, per auctoritatem legitimam in publico judicio respondere compellat. Quam formam etiam circa Episcoporum personam observari oportere censemus. Ut si in hujuscemodi ordinis homines actionem pervasionis et atrocium injuriarum dirigi necesse fuerit, per procuratorem solemniter ordinatum apud judicem publicum inter leges et jura confligant, judicati exitu ad mandatores sine dubio reversuro. Quod iis religionis et sacerdotii veneratione permittimus. Nam notum est, procurationem in criminalibus negotiis non posse concedi. Sed ut sit ulla discretio meritorum, Episcopis et Presbyteris tantum id oportet. impendi. In reliquis negotiis criminalibus juxta legum ordinem per se judicium subire coguntur.

recognised by the state, from the elevation of Christianity into the state religion. The persons of magistrates also now became subject to the inspection of the public morals; yea, even the emperors themselves, as far as they were Christians; and the duty of interference on behalf of the unfortunate established a right of intercession with the civil power, which often exhibited

8 Conc. Arelatense, ann. 314, c. 7: De praesidibus, qui fideles ad praesidatum prosiliunt, placuit ut, cum promoti fuerint, literas accipiant ecclesiasticas communicatorias (Comp. div. i. § 41, note 5): ita tamen, ut in quibuscunque locis gesserint, ab Episcopo ejusdem loci cura de illis. agatur, et cum coeperint contra disciplinam agere, tum demum a communione excludantur. Similiter et de his qui rempublicam agere volunt. Gregor. Naz. orat. xvii. p. 271, thus addresses the δυνάσται καὶ ἄρχοντες : ὁ τοῦ Χριστοῦ νόμος ὑποτίθησιν ὑμᾶς τῇ ἐμῇ δυναστείᾳ καὶ τῷ ἐμῷ βήματι ἄρχομεν γὰρ καὶ αὐτοὶ, προσθήσω δ' ὅτι καὶ τὴν μείζονα καὶ τελεωτέραν ἀρχήν. ἢ δεῖ τὸ πνεῦμα ὑποχωρῆσαι τῇ σαρκὶ, καὶ τοῖς γηίνοις τὰ ἐπουράνια ; Thus Athanasius excommunicated a governor of Libya on account of cruelty and excesses; and Basil the Great assures him (ep. 61,) after he had made known this excommunication in his church, ἀποτρόπαιον αὐτὸν πάντες ἡγήσονται, μὴ πυρὸς, μὴ ὕδατος, μὴ σκέπης αὐτῇ κοινωνοῦντες. Comp. the excommunication which Synesius, bishop of Ptolemais, uttered against the perfect Andronicus, Synesii epist. 58: ̓Ανδρονίκῳ καὶ τοῖς αὐτοῦ μηδὲν ἀνοιγνύσθω τέμενος τοῦ θεοῦ· ἅπας αὐτοῖς ἱερὸς ἀποκεκλείσθω καὶ σηκὸς καὶ περίβολος οὐκ ἔστι τῷ Διαβόλῳ μέρος ἐν Παραδείσῳ, ὅς κἂν λάθῃ διαδὺς, ἐξελαύνεται, Παραινῶ μὲν οὖν καὶ ἰδιώτῃ παντὶ καὶ ἄρχοντι, μήτε ὁμορόφιον αὐτῷ, μήτε ὁμοτράπεζον γίνεσθαι· ἱερεῦσι δὲ διαφερόντως, οἱ μήτε ζῶντας αὐτοὺς προσεροῦσι, μήτε τελευτήσαντας συμπροπέμψουσιν κ. τ. λ. cf. Clausen de Synesio, Hafn. 1831, 8, p. 152 ss. The bishops of Alexandria, in particular, made themselves objects of fear to the officials of that place. Cyril obtained this see by fighting, although the leader of the army there was against him, Socrates, vii. 7 : καὶ γὰρ ἐξ ἐκείνου ἡ Ἐπισκοπὴ ̓Αλεξανδρείας παρὰ τῆς ἱερατικῆς τάξεως καταδυναστεύειν τῶν πραγμάτων ἔλαβε τὴν ἀρχήν. Comp. Socrates, vii. c. 13, on the disputes between Cyril and Orestes, prefect of Egypt: Ορέστης δὲ καὶ πρότερον μὲν ἐμίσει τὴν δυναστείαν τῶν ἐπισκόπων, ὅτι παρῃροῦντο πολὺ τῆς ἐξουσίας τῶν ἐκ βασιλέως ἄρχειν τεταγμένων· μάλιστα δὲ ὅτι καὶ ἐποπτεύειν αὐτοῦ τὰς διατυπώσεις Κύριλλος ἐβούλετο.-Theodosius I. was compelled to do penance by Ambrose, (Rufinus, xi. 18; Sozom. vii. 25; Theodoret, v. 17. Comp. Neander's K.G. ii. i. 384). Of Theodosius II. Theodoret, v. 36, relates that a monk came to him, περί τινος δεόμενος, ἐπειδὴ δὲ τοῦτο δράσας πολλάκις οὐκ ἔτυχε, τῆς ἐκκλησιαστικῆς αὐτὸν κοινωνίας ἐκώλυσε, καὶ τὸν δεσμὸν ἐπιθεὶς ὑπεχώρησε. Nor had the emperor any rest till this fanatic had again freed him from the sentence.

9

(As the vestals had formerly exercised it, see Cicero pro Fontejo in fine. Sueton. Jul. Caesar, c. i. Tiber. c. 2). Conc. Sardic. c. 8, below, § 92, note 11. Ambrosius de offic. Ministr. ii. c. 21 : Adjuvat hoc quoque ad profectum bonae existimationis, si de potentis manibus eripias inopem, de morte damnatum eruas, quantum sine perturbatione fieri potest, ne vidaemur jactantiae magis causa facere, quam miseri