moderate ostentation. Still, however, their power continued to be restricted in many ways. Although the provincial bishops exercised a decided influence on the choice of a bishop, yet the election depended in a great degree on the church. The bishop himself, it is true, nominated the inferior clergy, but the presbyters had first to be approved by the church.10 In the discharge dent quidam dicentes, quae facere oporteat unumquemque, non autem facientes, et alligantes onera gravia et imponunt super humeros hominum, ipsi nec digito volentes ea movere (Matth. xxiii. 2, 3). Ibid. § 10, 12, 14, 61, in Num. hom. ii. 1, in Esaiam, hom. vii. 3. Cyprian. de lapsis: Episcopi plurimi, quos et hortamento esse oportet caeteris et exemplo, divina procuratione contemta, procuratores rerum saecularium fieri; derelicta cathedra, plebe deserta, per alienas provincias oberrantes, negotiationis quaestuosae nundinas aucupari; esurientibus in ecclesia fratribus, habere argentum largiter velle, fundos insidiosis fraudibus rapere, usuris multiplicantibus fenus augere.

8 Comp. the objections which were made to Paul of Samosata, in the writing of the synod at Antioch, which had been assembled against him, ap. Euseb. vii. 30. He drew from his episcopal jurisdiction unlawful gain, in the exercise of it imitated civil rulers, by causing to be erected for himself a βῆμα καὶ θρόνον ὑψηλόν, by having a σήκρητον, like worldly judges, and frequently giving himself up to the greatest violence. In church he caused applause to be dealt out to him by the waving of handkerchiefs and clapping of hands. This was justly condemned; but since the clapping of hands, by way of applause, was universal in the fourth century, it may be assumed that Paul was not the only bishop of his time who willingly put up with it.

9 Comp. § 30, note 12. Cyprian. epist. 68: plebs ipsa maxime habet potestatem vel eligendi dignos sacerdotes, vel indignos recusandi. Quod et ipsum videmus de divina auctoritate descendere, ut sacerdos plebe praesente sub omnium oculis deligatur, et dignus atque idoneus publico judicio ac testimonio comprobetur, sicut in Numeris Dominus Moysi praecepit dicens: Apprehende Aaron fratrem et Eleazarum filium ejus, et impone eos in montem coram omni synagoga, etc. (Num. xx. 25). Coram omni synagoga jubet Deus constitui sacerdotem, id est, instruit et ostendit, ordinationes sacerdotales non nisi sub populi assistentis conscientia fieri oportere, ut plebe praesente vel detegantur malorum crimina vel bonorum merita praedicentur, et sit ordinatio justa et legitima, quae omnium suffragio et judicio fuerit examinata. Propter quod diligenter de traditione divina et apostolica observatione servandum est et tenendum, quod apud nos quoque et fere per provincias universas tenetur, ut ad ordinationes rite celebrandas ad eam plebem, cui praepositus ordinatur, episcopi ejusdem provinciae proximi quique conveniant, et episcopus deligatur plebe praesente, quae singulorum vitam plenissime novit, et uniuscujusque actum de ejus conversatione perspexit. Origenes in Levit. hom. vi. c. 3. Hence in Cyprian: Episcopus factus de Dei et Christi ejus judicio, de Clericorum testimonio, de Plebis suffragio (epist. 52, cf. ep. 41), cf. Lamprid. in Sev. Alex. c. 45 (§ 56, note 6). F. A. Staudenmaier's Gesch. der Bischofswahlen, Tübingen 1830, S. 20.

of his duties the bishop had not only to consult his presbyters,1 ‚11 but even in certain cases to ask the opinion of the whole church.12 There were even cases in which laymen learned in the Scriptures publicly taught in the church with permission of the bishops.13

10 Cyprian. ep. 65. Diaconi ab episcopis fiunt. Ep. 33, ad Clerum et plebem Carthag. In ordinationibus clericis, fratres carissimi, solemus vos ante consulere, et mores ac merita singulorum communi consilio ponderare. Cornelii ep. ad Fabium (ap. Euseb. vi. 43, 7): At the ordination of Novatian as presbyter ὁ ἐπίσκοπος διακωλυόμενος ὑπὸ παντὸς τοῦ κλήρου, ἀλλὰ καὶ λαϊκῶν πολλῶν,—ἠξίωσε συγχωρηθῆναι αὐτῷ τοῦτον μόνον χειροτονῆσαι. cf. Vales. ad h. 1.

11 In Cyprian often, consulere presbyterium, consilio communi res tractare, &c. Comp. Conc. Carthagin. gener. iv. v. J. 398, can. 23 (Mansi, iii. p. 953): Episcopus nullus causam audiat absque praesentia clericorum suorum: alioquin irrita erit sententia Episcopi, nisi clericorum sententia confirmetur. Concerning the right of voting at synods see Ziegler in Henke's Neuem Magazin, Bd. 1, S. 165 ff.

12 Cyprian. ep. 5, ad Presbyt. et Diac.: quando a primordio episcopatus mei statuerim, nihil sine consilio vestro et sine consensu plebis mea privatim sententia gerere. So particularly at the re-admittance of the lapsed. Cypriani ep. 11, a plebem: Exspectent (lapsi) regressionem nostram, ut convocati episcopi plures secundum Domini disciplinam, et Confessorum praesentiam, et vestram quoque sententiam beatorum nærtyrum litteras et desideria examinare possimus. Ep. 13, ad Clerum : Hoc enim et verecundiae et disciplinae et vitae ipsi omnium nostrum convenit, ut praepositi cum clero convenientes, praesente etiam stantium plebe, quibus et ipsis pro fide et timore suo honor habendus est, disponere omnia consilii communis religione possimus. Ep. 17, ad Presbyt. et Diac. Quae res cum omnium nostrum consilium et sententiam expectet, praejudicare ego et soli mihi rem communem vindicare non audeo. Ep. 28, ad eosdem: Cui rei non potui me solum judicem dare, cumhaec singulorum tractanda sit et limanda plenius ratio, non tantum cum collegis meis, sed et cum plebe ipsa universa. That the same principles were acted on at Rome is clear from Ep. Cleri Rom. ad Cypr. (Ep. Cypr. 31). Cypriani ep. 9, ad Clerum: Presbyters who have admitted the lapsed to church communion must agere et apud nos, et apud confessores ipsos, et apud plebem universam causam suam. cf. du Pin de ant. eccl. disc. p. 246 s3. S. H. Boehmeri xii. dissert. juris eccl. ant. ed. ii. p.

13

149 ss.

Epist. Alexandri Episc. Hierosol. et Theoctisti Caesariensis ad Demetrium Alexandr. (ap. Euseb. vi. 19, 7). In the case of Origen:

Προσέθηκας δὲ τοῖς γράμμασιν, ὅτι τοῦτο οὐδέ ποτε ἠκούσθη, οὐδὲ νῦν γεγένηται, τὸ, παρόντων ἐπισκόπων λαϊκοὺς ὁμιλεῖν, οὐκ οἶδ' ὅπως προφανῶς οὐκ ἀληθῆ λέγων. Ὅπου γοῦν εὑρίσκονται οἱ ἐπιτήδειοι πρὸς τὸ ὠφελεῖν τοὺς ἀδελφοὺς, καὶ παρακαλοῦνται τῷ λαῷ προσομιλεῖν ὑπὸ τῶν ἁγίων ἐπισκόπων· ὥσπερ ἐν Δαράνδους Εὔελπις ὑπὸ Νέωνος, καὶ ἐν Ικονίῳ Παυλίνος ὑπὸ Κέλσου, καὶ ἐν Συννάδοις Θεόδωρος ὑπὸ ̓Αττικοῦ τῶν μακαρίων ἀδελφῶν· εἰκὸς δὲ καὶ ἐν ἄλλοις τόποις τοῦτο γίνεσθαι, ἡμᾶς δὲ μὴ εἰδέναι. So also Constitt. Apost. viii. c. 32: ὁ διδάσκων, εἰ καὶ λαϊκὸς δ, ἔμπειρος δὲ τοῦ λόγου, καὶ τὸν τρόπον σεμνός,

$70.

DIVINE SERVICE.

In the third century the traces of buildings devoted exclusively to Christian worship became more frequent and obvious;1 and as early as the peaceful times between the Valerian and Diocletian persecutions, splendid edifices had been erected for this purpose.' These were called προσευκτήριον, κυριακόν, dominicum, οἶκος ἐκκλησίας and simply ἐκκλησία. From the time of Constantine they were also styled vaós, templum, but never fanum and delubrum. In imitation of the temple of Jerusalem, a part of the interior was inaccessible to the people (aylaoua, Bua, chorus), where the wooden table for the Lord's Supper (rpáπeša, mensa sacra) stood beside the seats of the clergy (kattopa, Opóvo). Though the Christians were fond of certain religious symbols on many of their household utensils, yet nothing of this kind was allowed in the churches.

At the time of Origen, the Christians had no other general festivals besides Sunday, than the parasceve (preparation), the

διδασκέτω ἔσονται γὰρ πάντες διδακτοὶ θεοῦ (Jo. vi. 45): and Conc. Carthag. gener. iv. c. 98 (Mansi, iii. p. 959): Laicus praesentibus clericis nisi ipsis jubentibus docere non audeat.

1 Under Severus Alexander (§ 56, note 6) then in Cyprian, Dionysius of Alexandria, &c. Comp. above § 53, note 10.

2 Euseb. h. e. viii. 1, 2: μηδαμῶς ἔτι τοῖς παλαιοῖς οἰκοδομήμασιν ἀρκούμενοι, εὐρείας εἰς πλάτος ἀνὰ πάσας τὰς πόλεις ἐκ θεμελίων ἀνίστων ἐκκλησίας.

3 A prescription respecting the planning of churches is found in Constitt. Apost. ii. 57. A description of the church at Tyre, apud Euseb. x. 4, 15 ss.

So on the rings of seals a dove, a ship, a lyre, an anchor, a fish, &c. Clem. Alex. paedag. iii. p. 289. Tertullian, de pudic. c. 7, mentions the picturae calicum representing the ovis perdita a Domino requisita, et humeris ejus revecta, but does not seem (cap. 10) to approve of it. Münter's Sinnbilder de alten Christen. Heft 1, S. 7 f.

5 Can. Illiberit. 36: Placuit, picturas in ecclesia esse non debere, ne quod colitur et adoratur, in parietibus depingatur. The older catholic theologians, for example, Baronius, Bellarmine, Perronius, &c., tried many ways of evading the force of this canon; on the contrary, the true meaning of it, with its historical consequences, has been acknowledged by Petavius, dogm. theol. lib. xv. c. 13. no. 3. Pagius crit. ad ann. 55 no. 4. 18, especially Natalis Alexander ad hist. eccl. saec. iii. Diss. 21, Art. 2.

passover, and the feast of pentecost. Soon after, however, there appears to have been added to them the feast of the ascension (ἡ ἑορτὴ τῆς ἀναλήψεως τοῦ Κυρίου).7 So also in Egypt, towards the end of the third century, they began to observe, after the example of Basilides' followers,8 the epiphany (rà éπipánia) on the sixth of January, but according to the orthodox view of the appearance of the Logos on carth, ( érpáreia), not simply as the festival of his baptism, but also as that of his birth. The arrangement of Divine worship at this time is found in the Constitt. Apost. ii. 57. At the agapae, the clergy and poor were particularly remembered. (l. c. ii. 23.)

The respect paid to martyrs still maintains the same character as in the second century, differing only in degree, not in kind, from the honour shown to other esteemed dead. As the churches held the yearly festivals of their martyrs at the graves of the latter, so they willingly assembled frequently in the burial places of their deceased friends, 10 for which they used in many places even caves (cryptae, catacumbae)." At the cele

6 Origen. contra Cels. viii. p. 392.

7 First mentioned in the Constitt. Apostol. v. 19, and considered by Augustine (ep. 118 ad Januar.) as an ancient festival. See Krabbe über die apost. Constitutionen, S. 176 ff.

8 Comp. § 45, note 2. So also Jablonski de orig. festi nativ. Christi diss. i. § 7. (Opusc. ed. te Water, iii. p. 328 ss.) Differently Neander gnost. Systeme, S. 49, 81, and Kirchengesch. i. i. S. 519. On the other side see Hallische A. L. Z. April 1823, S. 836.

9 Comp. § 53, note 46. A remarkable accommodation of Gregory Thaumaturgus, see Vita S. Gregorii Thaumat. per Gregor. Nyssenum (ed. G. Vossii, p. 312) : Συνιδὼν ὅτι ταῖς σωματικαῖς θυμηδίαις τῇ περὶ τὰ εἴδωλα πλάνῃ παραμένει τὸ νηπιῶδες τῶν πολλῶν καὶ ἀπαίδευτον ὡς ἂν τὸ προηγούμενον τέως ἐν αὐτοῖς μάλιστα κατορθωθείη τὸ πρὸς τὸν θεὸν ἀντὶ τῶν ματαίων σεβασμάτων βλέπειν, ἐφῆκεν αὐτοῖς ταῖς τῶν ἁγίων μαρτύρων ἐμφαιδρύνεσθαι μνήμαις καὶ εὐπαθεῖν καὶ ἀγάλλεσθαι.

10 Constitt. Apost. v. c. 8 : συναθροίζεσθε ἐν τοῖς κοιμητηρίοις, τὴν ἀνάγνω σιν τῶν ἱερῶν βιβλίων ποιούμενοι, καὶ ψάλλοντες ὑπὲρ τῶν κεκοιμημένων μαρτύρων καὶ πάντων τῶν ἀπ' αἰῶνος ἁγίων, καὶ τῶν ἀδελφῶν ὑμῶν τῶν ἐν κυρίῳ κεκοιμημένων· καὶ τὴν ἀντίτυπον τοῦ βασιλείου σώματος Χριστοῦ δεκτὴν εὐχαριστίαν προσφέρετε ἔν τε ταῖς ἐκκλησίαις ὑμῶν, καὶ ἐν τοῖς κοιμητηρίοις. Hence Aemilianus, governor of Egypt, said to the Christians brought before him in the Decian persecution (Dionys. Alex. ap. Euseb. vii. 11, 4): οὐδαμῶς δὲ ἐξέσται ὑμῖν—ἢ συνόδους ποιεῖσθαι, ἢ εἰς τὰ καλούμενα κοιμητήρια eloiéval. So also the proconsul of Africa (Acta proconsularia, S. Cypriani c. 1). Gallienus removed this prohibitory rule (see above § 56, note 14); but Maximus afterwards renewed it (Euseb. ix. c. 2).

11 Christian catacombs are found in Rome, Naples, Syracuse, and Malta. In the year 1844 they were also discovered on the island Melos.

T

bration of the Lord's supper, both the living who brought oblations, as well as the dead, and the martyrs for whom offerings were presented, especially on the anniversary of their death, were included by name in the prayer of the church.12 Inasmuch as the re-admission of a sinner into the church was thought to stand in close connexion with the forgiveness of sin, an opinion was associated with the older custom of restoring to church communion the lapsed who had been again received by the martyrs, that the martyrs could also be serviceable in obtaining the forgiveness of sins.13 In doing so they set out in Respecting the Roman catacombs Hieronymus in Ezechiel. c. 40: Dum essem Romae puer, et liberalibus studiis erudirer, solebam cum caeteris ejusdem aetatis et propositi diebus dominicis sepulchra Apostolorum et Martyrum circuire: crebroque cryptas ingredi, quae in terrarum profunda defossae, ex utraque parte ingredientium per parietes habent corpora sepulturarum, et ita obscura sunt omnia, propemodum illud propheti. cum compleatur: descendant ad infernum viventes, &c. cf. Prudentius Tepi σrep. hymn xi. Passio Hippolyti, v. 153 ss.-Modern descriptions of the catacombs in Rome: Pauli Aringhi Roma subterranea novissima, Paris 1659, 2 voll. fol. M. A. Boldetti osservazioni sopra i Cimiteri de' SS. Martiri, ed antichi Cristiani di Roma, 1720, 2 T. fol. ther the works of Bottari, Ciampini, &c. (see Münter's Sinnbilder d. alten Christen. Heft 1. S. 24). Volkmann's histor. krit. Nachrichten v. Italien, (Leipz. 3 Bde. 1777), iii. 67. A description of the city of Rome by Platner, Bunsen, Gerhard and Röstell (Stuttgart and Tübingen, 1830, i. 355): Respecting those in Naples: Pellicia de christ. eccl. politia. tom. iii. P. ii. Diss. 5. Chr. F. Bellermann über die ältesten christl. Begräbniszstätten, u. bes. die Katakomben zu Neapel mit ihren Wandgemälden, Hamburg 1839, 4: Respecting those in Sicily see Bartel's Briefe über Calabrien u. Sicilien, (Gotting. 3 Th. 1787—91), iii. 203. Münter's Nachrichten v. Neapel und Sicilien, S. 344.-Of the mass of relics and indulgences, the symbol of the palm and the pretended blood-vessels (which were more probably used in the celebration of the eucharist) have been established marks of the graves of martyrs; but that they are not sufficient marks is shown by Eusebius Romanus (Mabillon) de cultu Sanctorum ignotorum. Paris 1688, 4. In the second edition, however, he was obliged to yield. 1705. [The church in the Catacombs, by Dr C. Maitland, London, 1846, 8vo].

See far.

12 These register of names, since they were not always the same, were inscribed for each occasion on the writing tables then used (diptycha, SITTUXa), and afterwards erased. Hence the appellation diptycha was used of the lists of names of persons to be mentioned at the communion service, though these lists afterwards assumed a more permanent character after all the offerentes were no longer called by name. This, and the peculiar names diptycha Episcoporum, dipt. vivorum, dipt. mortuorum, first occur in the fifth century. Chr. A. Salig de diptychis veterum tam profanis quam sacris, Halae 1731, 4.

18 Against this notion great zeal is shown by Tertull. de pudicitia, c.