THIRD DIVISION. FROM SEPTIMIUS SEVERUS TO THE SOLE DOMINION OF CONSTANA.D. 193-324. TINE. INTRODUCTION. $ 54. CONDITION OF HEATHENISM. While the Roman empire appeared hastening to its tall, the throne being occupied by soldiers, the provinces devastated by barbarians, and the government changed into the most arbitrary despotism, the kingdom of superstition, in which alone the men of that time sought for peace and security from the dangers that surrounded them, had established itself firmly. Not only were the emperors themselves addicted to this superstition, but they also openly confessed it, and partly introduced themselves foreign rites into Rome. The Platonic philosophy, which had confined itself till now to a defence of the popular religions, and to securing for the wise a more elevated worship of deity, endeavoured, since the beginning of the third century, to give to the people's religion a higher and more spiritual form, under the appearance of bringing it back to its original purer state. This philosophy had been unquestionably overpowered by the spiritual predominance of Christianity. With this view, Philostratus 1 P. E. Müller de hierarchia et studio vitae asceticae in sacris et mysteriis Graec. et Rom. latentibus, Hafn. 1803. Abschn. 3 (translated in the N. Bibl. d. schön. Wissensch. Bd. 70, S. 3 ff.) The Jewish religion also was continually incorporated into this religious mixture (comp. above § 17, note 9), see Commodiani (about 270) instructiones adv. gentium deos pro christiani disciplina (in Gallandii biblioth. vett. Patr. T. iii.) : Inter utrumque putans dubie vivendo cavere, the elder composed the life of Apollonius of Tyana (220), in which the latter was represented as the reformer of heathenism.2 But all the preceding tendencies of philosophy, and this also, were perfected in the so-called new platonic school.3 The founder of it, Ammonius Saccas, Zakkâs (i. e. σakkodópos) of Alexandria († about 243), an apostate from Christianity to heathenism, appears to have borrowed the pattern of his heathenism-defending philosophy principally from the Christian gnostics. communicated his system only as a secret; but by his disciple, the Egyptian Plotinus († 270), it was farther developed, and spread abroad with incredible rapidity. With no less renown, Plotinus was followed by his disciple Porphyry of Tyre (Malchus † 304, and he by Jamblichus of Chalcis († 333), who survived the overthrow of paganism." He The leading principles of the theology of these philosophers, who wished to find the absolute, not by a process of thought, but by immediate intuition, like the Christian gnostics, are the following: From the highest existence (rò v) arises intelligence ( vous), and from this the soul (x). The highest world of intelligence or understanding (Kóσμos vonтós), is the essence of all intelligences, of the gods as well as of human spirits. By the soul of the world (consequently the onμoupybs), the visible world was formed. The gods are divided into those dwelling above the 2 Comp. $ 14, note 10, and Baur's treatise there quoted. Tzschirner's Fall d. Heidenthums, i. 405, 461. 3 Concerning this comp. Tiedemann's Geist der specul. Philosoph. iii. 262. Tennemann's Gesch. d. Philos. vi. Ritter's Gesch. d. Philos. iv. 535. C. Meiner's Beitrag zur Gesch. d. Denkart d. ersten Jahrh. n. Chr. G., Leipzig 1782, 8, S. 47 ff. Imm. Fichte de philosophiae novae Platonicae origine, Berol. 1818. F. Bouterwek Philosophorum Alexandrinorum ac Neo-Platonicorum recensio accuratior, in the Commentatt. Soc. Reg. Scient. Gotting. recentiores, vol. v. (1823) p. 227 ss. Tzschirner's Fall. d. Heidenth. i. S. 404 ff. K. Vogt's Neoplatonismus u. Christenthum, Th. i. Neoplatonische Lehre, Berlin 1836, 8. 4 Porphyrius contra Christianos, ap. Euseb. vi. 19: 'Aμμúvios pèv yàp Χριστιανὸς ἐν Χριστιανοῖς ἀνατραφεὶς τοῖς γονεῦσιν, ὅτε τοῦ φρονεῖν καὶ τῆς φιλοσοφίας ἥψατο, εὐθὺς πρὸς τὴν κατὰ νόμους πολιτείαν μετεβάλετο. On the other hand, Eusebius : τῷ ̓Αμμωνίῳ τὰ τῆς ἐνθέου φιλοσοφίας ἀκέραια καὶ ἀδιάπτωτα καὶ μέχρις εσχάτης τοῦ βίου δίεμενε τελευτῆς. Here Eusebius evidently refers to another Ammonius, probably to the author of the Gospel Harmony. 5 Vita Plotini, by Porphyrius, in Fabric. Bibl. Gr. vol. iv. Eunapii (about 395) vitae Sophistarum, rec. et illustr. J. F. Boissonade, Amst. 1822, 8. world ἄϋλοι, νοητοί, ἀφανεῖς), and those inhabiting the world (περικόσμιοι, αἰσθητοί, ἐμφανεῖς). To the latter the different parts of the world are entrusted for oversight (hence beol μepikol, μÉPLOTOL, ¿ováρxaι, Toxoxo); and from them the various nations have derived their peculiar character. Lower than the gods stand the demons, some good, and others bad. While the people worship the highest god only in their national deities, and that with propriety, the wise man must, on the contrary, endeavour to attain to immediate union with the highest deity. While neoplatonism endeavoured in this way both to prop up heathenism, and to give it a higher and more spiritual character, it adapted itself, on the one hand, to the grossest popular superstitions, and, on the other, adopted the purest ideas respecting the supreme deity. Accordingly, it communicated, at the same time, the most excellent precepts regarding the moral worship of God, and recommended asceticism and theurgy, in order to elevate its votaries to communion with the deity, and to obtain dominion over the demons. It cannot well be doubted, that Christianity influenced the development of the purer aspect of the neo-platonic doctrines, when we look at the striking agreement of many of these doctrines with those of Christianity.7 source, however, was not acknowledged by the new Platonists, who wished that the root of their doctrine should be considered as existing only in the national philosophy, and, along with it, in the oldest Chaldean and Egyptian wisdom. In consequence of this view, neo-platonic productions appeared sometimes in the form of Chaldean oracles, and in the name of Hermes Trismegistus.9 6 Lobeck Aglaophamus, i. p. 104 ss. This 7 Mosheim diss. de studio ethnicorum Christianos imitandi in his Diss. ad hist. eccl. pertinentes, i. 351. Ullmann über den Einfluss des Christenth. auf Porphyrius, in the theol. Stud. u. Krit. 1832, ii. 376. 8 Respecting the Xaλdaïkà λóyia among the New Platonists, see J. C. Thilo, comm. de coelo empyreo, pp. iii. Halae 1839-40, 4. 9 Hermes Trismegistus was the concentration of the old Egyptian wisdom, in whose name works of very different kinds were composed. The philosophic portion of them belongs to the new Platonism: Asclepius and Poemander are the most important (Opp. gr. lat. ed. Adr. Turnebus, Paris 1554, 4. Colon. 1630, fol. Hermes Trismegists Poemander von D. Tiedemann, Berlin 1781). Even in them we find many ideas borrowed from Christianity, so that they were erroneously, in part, attributed to Christian authors. Comp. Casauboni exercitatt. ad Baronium, p. 69. Chr. Meiner's Religionsgeschich. d. aeltesten Voelker, bes. FIRST CHAPTER. EXTERNAL FORTUNES OF CHRISTIANITY. § 55. DISPOSITION OF THE HEATHEN TOWARD IT. Though the reports of secret abominations said to be practised by the Christians in their assemblies vanished by degrees among the heathen people,1 yet other prejudices against them remained unchanged. Every public calamity was continually regarded as a token of the wrath of the gods against the Christians, and excited a fresh hatred and persecution. The cultivated heathen held fast by the old view, that whatever truth they could not avoid perceiving in the Christian religion, was disfigured by a barbarous form, and the admixture of rude enthusiasm, and was found in a purer form in their national traditions. From this point of view began, since the commencement of the third century, the efforts which were made to reform the popular religion, that it might be elevated to the same height as Christianity. In this way both religions had either to be blended together, or greater power given to heathenism to withstand Christianity. Philostratus, in his life of Apollonius of Tyana, might have had in d. Aegyptier. Gottingen 1775, S. 202. Tennemann's Gesch. d. Philos. vi. 464. Baumgarten-Crusius de librorum Hermeticorum origine atque indole (a Jena Easter-Programm), 1827, 4to. 1 Origenes c. Cels. vi. p. 294: ἥτις δυσφημία παραλόγως πάλαι μὲν πλείστων ὅσων ἐκράτει,—καὶ νῦν δὲ ἔτι ἀπατᾷ τινας. Eusebius, iv. 7, 5: Ouk εἰς μακρόν γε μὴν αὐτῷ (δαίμονι) ταῦτα προὐχώρει. 2 Comp. above § 41, note 26. The constant reproach of the heathen may be found in Cyprianus lib. ad. Demetrianum: Dixisti, per nos fieri, et quod nobis debeant imputari omnia ista, quibus nunc mundus quatitur et urgetur, quod dii vestri a nobis non colantur. Origenes in Matth. commentariorum series, c. 39 (on Matth. xxiv. 9), Arnobius adv. gentes, i. c. 1: postquam esse in mundo christiana gens coepit, terrarum orbem periisse, multiformibus malis affectum esse genus humanum : ipsos etiam Coelites derelictis curis solennibus, quibus quondam solebant invisere res nostras, terrarum ab regionibus exterminatos, c, 3, iii. 36, iv. 37. cf. Maximini epist. ap. Euseb. ix. 7, 4. view this syncretitisc object, but Neo-platonism on the contrary appeared in an attitude decidedly hostile to Christianity. The new Platonists for the most part regarded Christ as the most distinguished being and theurgist. On the other hand, however, they asserted that the doctrine of Christ perfectly agreed with theirs at first, but that it had been in many ways corrupted by his disciples, especially by the doctrine of Christ's deity, and forbidding the worship of the gods.5 In this manner the Christians 3 Comp. § 14, note 10. Baur's Apollonius u. Christus, in the Tübingen Zeitschr. f. Theol. 1832, iv. 123 ff. Mosheim de turbata per recentiores Platonicos ecclesia in his dissert. ad hist. eccl. pert. i. 120, 173. Keil de causis alieni Platonic. recent. a rel. Christ. animi (Opusc. acad. ii. 393 ss.). Tzschirner's Fall d. Heidenth. i. 560. 3 Porphyrius περὶ τῆς ἐκ λογίων φιλοσοφίας (a book which Ficinus must have read even so late as the fifteenth century. See his Comment. in Plotini Ennead. ii. lib. iii. c. 7, p. 121, and frequently, and which is probably still preserved in some Florentine library) apud Augustin. de Civ. Dei, xix. 23: Praeter opinionem profecto quibusdam videatur esse quod dicturi sumus. Christum enim Dii piissimum pronunciaverunt et immortalem factum, et cum bona praedicatione ejus meminerunt (namely by oracles). Christianos autem pollutos et contaminatos et errore implicatos esse dicunt, et multis talibus adversus eos blasphemiis utuntur.-De Christo autem interrogantibus si est Deus, ait Hecate: "Quoniam quidem immortalis anima post corpus ut incedit, nosti: a sapientia autem abscissa semper errat: viri pietate praestantissimi est illa anima, hanc colunt aliena a se veritate." The same in Euseb. demonstr. evang. iii. c. 8:Οττι μὲν ἀθανάτη ψυχὴ μετὰ σῶμα προβαίνει, Γιγνώσκει σοφίῃ τετιμημένος. ἀλλάγε ψυχὴ 'Ανέρος εὐσεβίῃ προφερεστάτη ἐστὶν ἐκείνου. Sunt spiritus terreni minimi loco terreno quodam malorum Daemonum potestati subjecti. Ab his sapientes Hebraeorum, quorum unus iste etiam Jesus fuit, sicunt audisti divina Apollinis oracula, quae superius dicta sunt ab his ergo Hebraei Daemonibus pessimis et minoribus spiritibus vetabant religiosos, et ipsis vacare prohibebant: venerari autem magis coelestes Deos, amplius autem venerari Deum patrem. Hoc autem et Dii praecipiunt, et in superioribus ostendimus, quemadmodum animadvertere ad Deum monent, et illum colere ubique imperant. Verum indocti et impiae naturae, quibus vere fatum non concessit a Diis dona obtinere, neque habere Jovis immortalis notionem, non audientes et Deos et divinos viros, Deos quidem omnes recusaverunt, prohibitos autem Daemones non solum nullis odiis insequi, sed etiam revereri delegerunt. Augustin. de consensu Evangelistar. lib. i. c. 7, § 11. Honorandum enim tamquam sapientissimum virum putant, colendum autem tamquam Deum negant. Ibid. c. 9, § 14: Ita vero isti desipiunt, ut illis libris, quos eum (Christum) scripsisse existimant, dicant contineri eas artes, quibus eum putant illa fecisse miracula, quorum fama ubique precrebuit: quod existimando se ipsos produnt, quid diligant, et quid affectent. Ibid. |