with universal ideas, involves both the disposition and the capacity to enter upon the broad field of philosophical speculation. And this tendency is increased by the intimate connexion between some speculative systems and those political topics and interests, which occupy the attention of the multitude. Philosophy, like religion, considers all men as equal. Its subject is the human mind, or man in general, considered apart from all the peculiarities, by which each person is distinguished from his fellows. Its conclusions are universal, having no respect to times, countries, or individuals. Some theory of natural rights, therefore, seems properly to be embodied in these conclusions. And many writers on the subject have so considered it, and have made their whole theory of human nature subservient to the defence of a particular system of politics and government. Hobbes, for instance, founded his scheme of absolute despotism on his account of the origin of knowledge, and his explanation of the natural state and disposition of man; and Locke's principles of toleration are the obvious results of the principles established in his essay on the human understanding. The present popularity of Cousin's writings in this country, is to be attributed in great measure to his brilliant declamation in favor of the rights of man, by which he sought and obtained the support of the strong democratic party in France.

When the habit is once established of dwelling upon first principles and abstract truths, to the exclusion of any regard to facts, or any respect for the limitations suggested by experience, it is not surprising, that theories of society should be propounded from time to time, so novel and extravagant in their

character, that we are tempted to doubt the sanity of their advocates. Plans of universal reform and the regeneration of mankind, are proposed with a frequency, which appears rather marvellous to those who are accustomed to expatiate on the practical tendencies of the age. Indeed, such wild speculations may be attributed, in part, to a reaction against the narrow and selfish views, which are too common arnong the class of practical men. Mr. Owen contrives one scheme for reforming all the evils of social life, and some enthusiasts in our own vicinity propose another; and a single fact illustrates the soundness of the reasoning employed in both cases; — that, starting from premises of an opposite character, they arrive at nearly the same results. The honesty and

. sincerity of these persons are beyond question, and, since they are far above the class of ignorant and foolish fanatics, we can ascribe their extravagances only to the abuse of general theories, when not limited by experience.

The possibility of widely affecting the minds of men by abstract speculations, even when their time is occupied in manual labor, or in very practical pursuits, was fully proved by the philosophers, whose writings prepared the way for the first French revolution. The effect was more startling then, because it was repressed for a long time by outward circumstances, and at last flamed out, as it were, in a single night. In that fearful convulsion, the wildest schemes for the regeneration of France, and the general improvement of the human race, were proposed by men, who openly threw off all religious restraint, and whose actions showed equal disregard of common humanity and justice. They talked of nothing but

philanthropy and virtue, while their lives were sullied by every species of cruelty and vice. They de

. stroyed the religion of the country, and rejected all belief in the existence of a God, in order to disseminate pure philosophy, and to worship the goddess of

reason.

The writings of the Encyclopedists, from which the revolution received its violent and peculiar character, inculcated a high-toned philanthropy, and the greatest respect for all moral obligations, though they were based upon a philosophy, which was eminently sensual and irreligious. There is no reason to believe, that these men were insincere in their professions of regard for the interests of virtue and humanity. Many of them were probably enthusiasts in the cause, and were actuated by that earnest but vague desire for an opportunity to benefit all mankind, which is often the fruit of a life spent in study and contemplation of abstract truths. The disastrous results of their speculations must be attributed to their real ignorance of human nature, and not to their ill intentions. By inflaming the minds of the people with their brilliant theories and kindling eloquence, they wielded a power of the magnitude of which they were fully conscious, though they could not tell in what direction its force would be spent. They had the power to destroy all old associations and prejudices by the force of abstract reasoning, but they could neither restrain nor direct the enthusiasm, which they had created.

It would be irrational to suppose, that a theorizing and speculative turn of mind will ever become so common in this country, as to prepare

for the prevalence of a philosophy quite as heated and erratic, as that which obtained in France. We are secured from such a calamity, by the nature of the second cause, that here deserves remark, as fostering the growth of a native philosophy in this country. I mean the religious character of our ancestry, and of the institutions and habits of thought, which they bequeathed to their descendants. The rigid Puritanism of the fathers of New England left a deep imprint on the intellect and feelings of its inhabitants, which the lapse of centuries can hardly efface. Their creeds and systems of faith, it is true, were soon modified by the love of change, and the constant impulse of free inquiry. But the spirit of their tenets survived the body. Where their religious opinions were openly assailed, or quietly laid aside, their breath still animated the dispositions and prejudices of the people. A deep tone of seriousness, a self-denying spirit in regard to amusements, and extreme cautiousness in guarding the outward conduct were left ingrained in the character. These peculiarities attract the notice of foreign visitants at the present day. They are the most striking features in the general aspect of the population.

Any speculative systems, that obtain a permanent footing here, must conform, in a greater or less degree, to these prevailing influences. A gay and mocking spirit, like that which animated the philosophy of Helvetius and Voltaire, will not be tolerated. A reckless and blasphemous one, like that of d'Holbach and Diderot, would be scouted with general indignation. If philosophers find themselves trammeled in their speculations, by the positive doctrines and unyielding spirit of Christianity, they must not proclaim open war, but strive to weaken the enemy by a secret and insidious contest. They cannot triumph as avowed foes, but by borrowing the robes of the priest, and pretending to minister at the altar, they may hope to desecrate the service, and to destroy the worship

A religious parentage has entailed upon us a multitude of religious controversies. While an interest in the general subject of revelation is kept alive by long habit and old associations, the freedom of inquiry and love of change, which mark the age, have led to an almost endless diversity of doctrine. The disputes, that arise, are conducted mainly by abstract reasoning, for a people impatient of any absolute authority insensibly lose the power of being convinced by appeals to Scripture. The arena of theological contests is thus opened to the layman, the logician, and the speculatist, and the weapons of attack and defence are borrowed from the popular philosophy of the day. We are not to wonder, therefore, that the questions at issue are made to turn upon these

speculative dogmas, — that they relate less to the interpretation of texts, and more to what may be termed the metaphysics of Christianity. Here, again, we perceive the influence of that system of doctrine, which the Pilgrims brought with them to this country, and which is still paramount in New England. Calvinism is eminently a metaphysical creed ; it produced the only man, who has acquired an European reputation, by metaphysical writings published in America. Though no successor is found able to bend the bow of Edwards, the study of his works still keeps alive a taste for the science, of which he was so distinguished an ornament. The turn which he gave to the inquiry, treating it more as a philosopher