Hymnology.

a sting. The hymenoptera in their perfect state generally feed on honey, but some of them prey on other insects, which are the food of the larvæ of a greater number; whilst the larvæ of some feed on various vegetable substances. The metamorphoses of the insects of this order are perfect; the larvæ are generally-although not in all the families-destitute of feet; the pupæ take no food. The hymenoptera are remarkable for the dilatation of the trachea or air-tubes into vesicles, and the general perfection of the respiratory system. The instincts and even apparent intelligence displayed by some of them-particularly the social kinds, which live in communities-have excited admiration from the earliest times.-The order is divided into two sections: terebrantia, having an ovipositor; and aculeata, having a poison-reservoir and sting. To the former belong saw-flies, gall-flies, ichneumons, etc.; to the latter belong ants, bees, wasps, etc.

HYMET TUS, a mountain in Attica, now called Trelo Vouni, situated to the s.e. of Athens, and famous among the ancients for its honey and its marble. The honey still retains its reputation.

The word

HYMN, a canticle of praise or of prayer addressed to the divine honor. in its strict acceptation supposes a certain metrical structure, or at least some kind of rhythmical cadence. The use of hymns dates from the earliest days of Christianity (Matt. xxvi. 30; Col. iii. 16); but our information as to the hymns of the early ages, and still more as to their authors, is extremely imperfect. The Te Deum is variously ascribed to St. Ambrose, St. Hilary, to Abundius, and to a monk named Sissabul. To Prudentius, with greater certainty, are assigned the Hymn of Holy Innocents, Salvete Flores Martyrum, and the Ales Diei Nuntius. Even the names of the authors of the more modern hymns are often involved in mystery; but some of the most esteemed hymns are known as the productions of Sedulius, of Fortunatus, of Paul the deacon, of St. Bernard, and St. Thomas. The number of hymn-writers in the modern languages is so great as to preclude the possibility of any enumeration. The most complete modern collection of medieval Latin hymns is Mone's Hymni Latini Medii Evi (1856). Collections were also made by Cardinal Newman and Archbishop Trench.

66

HYMNOLOGY. (See HYMN.) I. Scripture psalms and hymns. The sacred writings record strains of poetry, music, and song which furnish a model for the praises of the church through the ages. The book of Job, generally regarded as the oldest, declares that, at the creation, the morning stars sang together and all the sons of God shouted for joy." Moses led Israel into the wilderness with a song of praise-"I will sing unto the Lord, for he hath triumphed gloriously”—and brought them to the end of it with a doxology-"There is none like the God of Jeshurun, who rideth on the heaven in thy help." Centuries after, during troublous times, Deborah's song mingled a woman's tenderness with a warrior's joy-"Lord, when thou wentest out of Seir, the earth trembled and the heavens dropped." Afterwards Hannah's song is given-"The Lord maketh poor and maketh rich." From the heights of Bethel, in Samuel's day, "a company of prophets came down with psaltery and tabret, and pipe and harp." David, the sweet singer of Israel, composed among his flocks the psalm, "The Lord is my shepherd;" and, when he brought up the ark to Zion, appointed Levites, with instru ments of music, to sing, in the worship of the sanctuary, 'Give unto the Lord, ye kindreds of the people, give unto the Lord glory and strength." With David other psalmists were united; and yet others, ages after, added to their work. From the depths of the captivity came the mournful strain, "By the rivers of Babylon there we sat down," followed with thanksgiving when the captivity was turned. The Psalms completed have filled with the voice of praise not only the Jewish temple, but also the sanctuaries of all lands where the Lord is worshiped. The voices of the prophets repeated and prolonged the songs of Moses, "God came from Teman and the Holy One from Mount Paran, his glory covered the heavens, the earth was full of his praise.' After long silence their last promise was caught up by Zacharias, “Thou, child, shalt go before the face of the Lord to prepare his way;" and Hannah's thanksgiving was renewed, in even gentler tones, from Mary's lips, "He hath put down the mighty and exalted them of low degree." Soon, on the plains of Bethlehem, glad tidings of great joy for all people were proclaimed, and that song of the angels was heard which has floated down the centuries, "Glory to God in the highest, and on earth peace, good will toward men." Mingled with these were various human songs, from that of Simeon, "Lord, let thy servant now depart in peace," on to the hosannas on the mount of Olives and in the temple, the hymn at the institution of the supper, and the ascriptions of praise after the ascension. In the prison of Philippi praises to God were sung at midnight; in the early Christian worship, psalms, hymns, and spiritual songs were directed to be habitually used; and, in the closing of the Revelation, some of the songs of heaven were sent down to instruct and comfort the church on earth: the ascription of holiness and sovereignty to God, “Holy, holy, holy, Lord God almighty;" the song of redemption, "Worthy is the Lamb that was slain;" the song of Moses and the Lamb, "Great and marvelous are thy works;" and the wedding-song of the church in heaven, the bride of Christ, "Alleluia, for the Lord God omnipotent reigneth." II. Hymns of the ancient Christian church. Basil quotes an evening hymn from an unknown author. Pliny the younger, at the beginning of the 2d c., in describing Christians by characteristic marks, says that they were accustomed to sing hymns to Christ as to God. The oldest hymn that remains complete from the period of persecution is that of Clement of

Alexandria, which, though not remarkable as a poetical production, gives utterance to the emotions of love and thankfulness to Christ which filled the hearts of the early believers. Many of the Gnostics composed sacred songs in imitation of orthodox Christians as a popular means of diffusing their doctrinal views. One of these, Bardesanes, in the Syrian church of the 2d c., wrote 150 to correspond in number with the Psalms, which he imitated also in style and structure, thus presenting to simple souls a poisonous cup tempered with seductive sweetness." Ephraem Syrus, on the other hand, representing the Syrian hymnology, endeavored to counteract the Gnostic songs. In the Greek church, Arius, like the Gnostics, wrote hymns "for the sea, the mill, and the highway, which he set to music," and, by the practical Christian spirit which he infused into them, made them more popular than those of the orthodox church. Chrysostom endeavored to neutralize their influence in Constantinople by productions of his own pen. So general was the diffusion of these various songs that Jerome says no one could go into the fields without hearing the plowman singing hallelujahs, the mower hymns, and the vine-dresser David's psalms. The Greek sacred poetry, the work of nine centuries, has been, in a great degree, restricted to the oriental church. Most of it, pervaded with the superstitions of the east, is unfitted for general use. Some of the most valuable, however, has lately been well translated into English by Neale. The hymns of the Latin church are greatly superior in evangelical qualities to those of the Greek. The best of them, through translations and paraphrases, have become familiar in Protestant churches. The most celebrated one is Te deum laudamus, sung over all Christendom, and generally attributed to Ambrose, bishop of Milan, about 370 A.D., though some critics now assign it variously to other authors of later date. Many of the Latin hymns, however, like the Greek, celebrate the praises of Mary and the martyrs, and for Protestant ears are marred by various superstitious errors. The famous one of Thomas Aquinas, Pange, lingua, gloriosi, it has been said, "fixes the epoch of transubstantiation, the point at which the rhetoric of the pulpits froze into the logic of the schools." During the middle ages large numbers of hymns were written in the cloisters of Germany and France. The authorship of some of the best is uncertain or unknown. Veni, Creator Spiritus, translated by Dryden, has been ascribed by some to Charlemagne and by others to Maurus. The Dies Ira was written by Thomas of Celano, and the Stabat Mater by Jacopone. III. Modern hymns. 1. German. The earliest known German hymns belong to the 9th c., at which time, in a few churches, the people continued the old practice of joining in the response Kyrie eleison at certain intervals during the singing of the Latin hymns. To this were added a few German rhymes which constituted their earliest hymns, but were restricted at first to popular festivals and pilgrimages. In the 12th c. sacred songs in the national language were more freely written. Some translations also from the Latin became favorites among the people. But while a part of the German hymns were evangelical, others, like many of the Greek and Latin, were extravagant ascriptions to the virgin Mary of the attributes belonging to her divine son. Hymns in the national language were largely used also, by the Flagellants, Bohemians, Waldenses, and other sects, in connection with their study of the Scriptures. The reformation produced a great revival of sacred song throughout Germany as a natural accompaniment of liberty to worship God in the national language and to read his word. Luther not only translated the Bible, but also labored to make the practice and knowledge of music general throughout the land. Besides newly translating many of the best Latin hymns, he was himself the author of more than twenty, most of which have been widely diffused among Protestant nations, some of them being special favorites with all English speaking people. His Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott, Heine called the Marseillaise of the reformation. The thirty years' war, with all its disasters and sorrows, greatly stimulated the activity of the German mind and produced a great outburst of religious song" from famous authors, among whom were Opitz, Fleming, Rist, Heermann, and, a little later, Gerhardt, the prince of German hymnists, whose songs are pervaded by a spirit of cheerful piety showing itself alike in love to God and Christ, to nature, and to mankind." After him followed Frank, Neumark, Silesius, and other well-known names. The school of pietists, which for nearly a hundred years exerted a powerful influence on the religious and social life of Germany, furnished also some celebrated writers of hymns, among whom were Spener and Freylinghausen. The latter published a collection which was cherished by pious persons for several generations. In South Germany Hiller's Spiritual Songs was very popular, and is said to be " still the commonest book in Würtemberg next to the Bible." Among the mystics, Arnold and Tersteegen have written some hymns which are justly esteemed. Among the Moravians count Zinzendorf was remarkable as the author of more than 2,000 hymns, some of which are excellent. The prevalence of rationalism in Germany was unfavorable to hymnology. In connection with the "critical doubting" there" sprang up a mania for altering the classical hymns, consecrated, as they were, by so many associations." The alterations consisted in weakening the old strength and changing religion into mere morality. The process was popularly known as hymnbook watering. It was, however, only partially successful. Often the genuine emotion produced by the singing prevailed over the rationalism of the pulpit. Among the evangelical poets of the time, Gellert, Klopstock, and Cramer are justly esteemed. In South Germany and Austria great progress was marked by the permission which was

officially given to use vernacular hymns in the Roman Catholic churches. Though many of those adopted were translations from the Latin, yet in the original compositions the style of Gellert and Klopstock was imitated, and some of their hymns, even, were introduced. At the present time the reaction from rationalism is marked by a corresponding improvement in the style and quality of the hymns. The German evangelical church has produced in all about 80,000 devotional songs of various sorts and grades. 2. French. The Roman Catholic church of France continues to use in its public choral worship the old language of the Vulgate and the Breviary. The sacred songs of Madame Guyon give expression to the deep religious experience, abounding in peace and joy, which, as Wesley says, she truly possessed notwithstanding her errors of opinion and the sufferings brought on herself by her great mistake in following, as inspirations, her own inward impressions, instead of the directions of the written word. In later times, hymns in the French language have been freely used among the lower classes by Roman Catholic missionaries who, learning wisdom from Protestantism, employ against it one of its own chosen instrumentalities. The Reformed French church retains its version of the Psalms which, commenced by Marot in the early part of the 16th c., and finished by Beza, exerted great influence on the religion of the land. Its words, set to native airs, were cherished in the hearts of the people and were sung in the crowded cities, in the vineyards, on the rivers, and even during hunting expeditions of the king. Thus it powerfully aided the work of the reformation. In recent times, Cæsar Malan of Geneva has written many excellent hymns which express warm devotional feeling and clear scriptural truth in simple and flowing verse. Vinet also, in addition to his eminent attainments as a preacher and teacher of theology, was the author of a few hymns that well exhibit the thoughtful and ardent spirituality of his nature. 3. English. In England there has been a great deal of sacred poetry that cannot strictly be called hymns. The publications of the Percy society contain specimens of devotional song that are ascribed to the 13th c., and the reign of Edward I. In the 14th c., Chaucer, "the father of English poetry in its other branches, also "made many a hymn for holy days." After him no eminent poets appeared until the age of Elizabeth, during which the production of sacred verse was greatly increased. Among the writers of it were queen Elizabeth, archbishop Parker, Edmund Spenser, sir Walter Raleigh, lord Bacon, and sir Philip Sydney-joint author with his sister, the countess of Pembroke, of a metrical version of the Psalms. Another version, commenced by Sternhold and finished about 1562 by Hopkins with some assistance from other authors, though deficient in refinement and inferior in other respects, was marked by rugged strength as well as bold harmony and contained some stanzas which are still greatly admired. It became popular and, appended to the book of common prayer, continued long in use. The 17th c. produced the saintly Herbert, the quaint old Quarles with Vaughan, Southwell, and, above all, Milton, who, in addition to Paradise Lost, was the author of a noble Christmas hymn and other sacred lyrics. The dramatists also of that age, Ben Jonson, Beaumont, Fletcher, and, greatest of all, the "myriad-minded Shakespeare, furnished many specimens of sacred poetry which show the influence of Christianity on their intellects and hearts. The version of the Psaims by Rouse, an English Puritan, commended by the house of commons to the Westminster assembly and published in 1646, was generally used by British Presbyterians of that day and still holds its place in many of their congregations both in the old world and the new. At the close of the c., Tate and Brady's version was made, and, although "inflated, smooth, and insipid," soon superseded Sternhold and Hopkins as an appendage to the prayer book, which it still continues to be. Ten years before it, Mason's Spiritual Songs appeared, excellent in themselves and destined to prepare the way for still nobler strains that were soon afterwards heard. Dr. Watts, it is said, owed much to them. During all the time thus briefly reviewed, in the English cathedrals and other churches besides the Psalter, the Glorias, Te Deum, and some hymns of the middle ages, continued to be sung. On the threshold of the 18th c. bishop Ken's morning hymn, beginning with Awake my Soul, and closing with the doxology, Praise God from whom all blessings flow, entered on that stage of duty which now, like the sun, encircles the earth. About the same time Isaac Watts wrote for a single congregation the first of the songs before unknown," many of which have been cordially adopted by nearly all denominations of Protestant Christians. His cradle hymn has been sung in myriads of homes, and his divine songs for children, charming to them, have been acceptable to men of gifted minds. It is a pleasing coincidence that Ken's doxology and Watts's spiritual songs, which are now sung together in so many churches of different lands, together also marked the advent of modern English hymns. Doddridge was a child when the hymns of Watts were published, and, having become much attached to them, derived from them, it may be supposed, something of the poetic and devotional feeling which is expressed in his own hymns, many of which have entered into the life of the evangelical churches. Charles Wesley, a few years younger than Doddridge, became intimately connected with his older brother in the labors of the Methodist itineracy, and, during intervals of toil, wrote 7,000 hymns, many of which are highly esteemed for their lyrical excellence, religious fervor, and varied Christian experience. They owe much of their success, also, to the influence of the great revival of religion, in the midst of which he labored and which they, in their turn, so largely promoted. Some of them are rendered more interesting by the peculiar circumstances

which suggested them. At the beginning of his Christian life, while shrinking back from a public profession of his faith, a friend said to him: "If you had a thousand tongues you should publish the gospel with them all.' This led to the hymn, Oh for a thousand tongues to sing. Standing on the extreme projection of Land's End, he wrote, Lo! on a narrow neck of land. His judgment hymn was written just after the earthquake which destroyed Lisbon. Toplady, widely separated from the Wesleys in theological opinion, has been closely united with them in influence by his Rock of Ages, cleft for me. After these came Olivers, Cennick, Beddome, the countess of Blessington, and Annie Steele. The Olney hymns, by Newton and Cowper, contain among many other favorites, Amazing grace, how sweet the sound; How sweet the name of Jesus sounds; and Sometimes a light surprises, written by the former; and by the latter Oh for a closer walk with God; There is a fountain filled with blood; and God moves in a mysterious way. Robinson wrote Come thou fount of every blessing; Logan, Where high the heavenly temple stands; Medley, Awake my soul in joyful lays; Kirk White, The Lord our God is full of might; Perronet, All hail the power of Jesus' name; Thomas Moore, Come, ye disconsolate. James Montgomery, a Moravian Christian and a gifted poet, has enriched English hymnology with precious songs too numerous to be specified. Cardinal_Newman's exquisite hymn, Lead Kindly Light, is immortal. Lyte is the author of Jesus! I my cross have taken; Sarah F. Adams, of Nearer my God to thee; Charlotte Elliott, of Just as I am without one plea; sir John Bowring, of In the cross of Christ I glory; bishop Heber, of From Greenland's icy mountains. Keble's Christian Year, while it contains many hymns that are precious to all Christians, is said to have contributed greatly to the success of Tracts for the Times. "In its pensive, dreamy, soothing strains, we have the logic of the Oxford schools turned into rhetoric. The academic cloister and the Gothic aisle are the haunt and main region of his song. The white Levitical vestment is his singing robe, and you listen, in the dim religious light, to a music like the lulling chime of church bells." 4. American. The first American edition of Watts's Psalms and Hymns was published in 1741 by Benjamin Franklin, then a Philadelphia printer and comparatively unknown. These among Congregational, Baptist, and Presbyterian churches, with a collection of Wesley's hymns among Methodists, were, for many years, almost the only books in general use. In 1800 President Dwight, at the request of the general association (Congregational) of Connecticut, prepared an edition of Watts, with many additional hymns, some of which, from his own pen, are of great value. Among these are: I love thy kingdom, Lord, and While life prolongs its precious light. In 1818 Dr. Worcester of Salem, Mass., added to the unchanged Watts a copious selection of the best hymns then accessible. In 1830 Dr. Leavitt's Christian Lyre appeared; in 1831, Church Psalmody, by Dr. Lowell Mason and Rev. David Green; in 1832, Spiritual Songs, by Drs. Mason and Hastings; in 1858, the Plymouth collection, by Rev. Henry Ward Beecher, and the Sabbath Hymn Book, by Profs. Park and Phelps, and Dr. Mason. By that time all the barriers had given way and new hymn books have since been introduced among all denominations. In these various collections, besides the productions of English authors already mentioned, there are many choice American hymns. Among these may be cited: Softly now the light of day, and Fling out the banner, let it float, by bishop Doane of New Jersey; I would not live alway, by Dr. Muhlenbergh; How beauteous were the marks divine, and Oh! where are kings and empires now, by bishop Coxe; Oh sacred head, now wounded, translated by Dr. James W. Alexander. from Gerhardt's German hymn; It is not death to die, by Dr. Bethune; My faith looks up to thee, and Jesus! these eyes have never seen, by Dr. Ray Palmer; Blest comforter divine, by Mrs. Sigourney; One sweetly, solemn thought, by Phoebe Carey; I love to steal awhile away, by Mrs. Phoebe H. Brown. These and many more have greatly enlarged the list of psalms, hymns, and spiritual songs, in which the Christian church of all denominations can now worthily sing praises to the Lord. And, during all these years of advancement in hymns for the church, great attention, also, has been given to providing special hymns for children. The collections of these are very numerous and of various degrees of merit-few, however, of highest rank. Among the earliest was Bradbury's Golden Chain, and among the latest is Dr. Charles S. Robinson's Spiritual Songs for Sabbath Schools. In general, the public taste in hymnology is growing more critical, and demands are heard from various quarters for a disregarding of many of the hymns which have swollen recent hymn-books to such great proportions.

HYOID BONE, the tongue bone, or V-shaped bone, so named from its resemblance to the Greek letter upsilon. It is sometimes spoken of as unimportant in man, compared to the so-called hyoid bone in many of the lower animals, in which, on account of its being a support for branchial apparatus, it is often developed to a great size. But its importance is no less in man, because of its connection with the principal lingual organ; the perfection of its form and its exact location at the base of the tongue being a considerable element in the apparatus for the formation of articulate and musical Bounds.

HYOSCY'AMUS. See HENBANE.

HYPAPANTE (Gr. "the meeting "), the ancient Greek name for the feast of the Purification of St. Mary the Virgin; that being the meeting of Simeon and Anna with our Lord.

HYPA'TIA, daughter of Theon, an astronomer and mathematician of Alexandria, and head of the Neo-Platonic school in that city, was b. in the latter part of the 4th century. She was equally remarkable for her beauty, her wisdom, and her tragic fate. From her earliest youth, she exhibited an amazing intelligence, in consequence of which, her father, one of the most erudite savants of his time, resolved to give her genius a thoroughly philosophic culture. She succeeded her father in the chair of philosophy at Alexandria; and the fame of her lectures drew round her students from all parts of the east where the influence of Greek thought and knowledge was felt. Hypatia seems to have been worthy of the lofty eulogies she has received. Amid the wide-spread corruptions of Alexandria she lived as spotless as a vestal; and if her teaching was not one that could lay a strong hand on the vices of heathenism, and arrest their course, it was at least sufficient not only to preserve herself from pollution, but also to inspire her with a love of beauty, truth, and goodness, that was Christian in its spirit and earnestness, if heathen in its form and limitations. The citizens of Alexandria were proud of her; and such reliance was placed on her judgment and sagacity, that the magistrates used frequently to consult her on important cases. Among those who were most intimate with her was Orestes, prefect of the city. At this time the bishop of Alexandria was Cyril (q.v.), a fierce hater of heathens and heretics. Detesting Orestes, whom he suspected of being no true Christian, and who had drawn up an accusation against him for exciting a tumult, he soon cast an evil eye on Hypatia, whom he regarded as a satanic enchantress, and the grand obstacle to his reconciliation with the prefect. His hatred communicated itself to the lower clergy, and especially to certain savage monks from the Nitrian deserts, who, headed by one Peter, a reader, attacked Hypatia in the streets as she was returning from her lecture-room. The maiden was dragged from her chariot, hurried to the Cæsarian church, where she was stripped naked, and murdered with tiles, after which she was torn to pieces, and her limbs carried to a place called Cinaron, and there burned to ashes, 415 A.D. Hypatia is the heroine of Charles Kingsley's Hypatia, or New Foes with an Old Face.

HYPERÆSTHE'SIA (derived from hyper, over, and aisthesis, a sensation) include those affections which have this property in common-viz., an exalted irritability and increased irritation of the nerves. Hyperæsthesia of the cutaneous nerves is manifested by pain in its various modifications, which is sometimes intensely severe, as in ticdouloureux (see NEURALGIA), while hyperesthesia of the nerves of special sense is manifested by phantasms, illusions, etc. The following points are common to the whole class of these affections: 1. Periodicity, or the alternations of paroxysms and intermissions; 2. Uniformity and persistence of the symptoms, however long the duration of the disease; 3. No danger to life; 4. Freedom from this class of diseases in early life. Of the diseases predisposing to hyperæthesia, hysteria is far the most frequent; but it is sometimes induced by rheumatism, gout, skin-diseases, etc.

K

T

HYPER BOLA. If two similar cones be placed apex to apex, and with the lines joining the apex and center of base in each, in a straight line; then if a plane which does not pass through the apex be made to cut both cones, each of the two sections will be a hyperbola,

M

as PBN, P'AN'. It is, viewed ana

F. These given points are called the foci, one being situated in each hyperbola. The point G, midway between the two foci, is called the center, and

S

>

1

the line EF the transverse axis of the hyperbola. A line through G perpendicular to the transverse axis is called the conjugate axis; and a circle described from center B, with a radius equal to FG, will cut the conjugate axis in C and D. If G be taken for the origin of co-ordinates, and EM and E'F' for the axis, the hyperbola is expressed by x2 y2 the equation =1. (GB=a, GC=6). The hyperbola is the only conic section a2 b2 which has asymptotes (q.v.); in the figure these are GT, GT'; GS, GS'. It also appears that if the axis of co-ordinates be turned at right angles to their former position, x2 y2 two additional curves, HCK, H'DK', will be formed, whose equation is b2 a2 These two are called conjugate hyberbolas, and have the same asymptotes as the original hyperbolas. These asymptotes have the following remarkable property: If (starting from G) the asymptotes be divided in continued proportion, and from the points of section lines be drawn parallel to the other asymptote, the areas contained by two adjacent parallels and the corresponding parts of the asymptote and curve are equal; also lines drawn from the center to two adjacent points of section of the curve, inclose equal areas. The equation to the hyperbola when referred to the asymptotes is

= 1