Hieronymites.

enunciated that the ovals or cartouches contained royal names, and that the hieroglyphs, or some of them, were used to express sounds. More monuments were known, and juster ideas had begun to dawn on the European mind; and the discovery by the French, in 1799, of the so-called Rosetta stone, a slab of black granite having inscribed upon it, first in hieroglyphics, secondly in demotic or enchorial (a cursive popular form of writing extant at the period), and thirdly in Greek, a decree of the priests of Egypt assembled in synod at Memphis in honor of Ptolemy V., gave the first clue to the decipherment. The first attempts, indeed, were made upon the demotic text by Silvestre de Sacy with some success, but it was soon discovered that the demotic was not purely alphabetic. Crude notions of the ideographic nature of the hieroglyphs prevailed till Dr. Young, in 1818, first gave out the hypothesis that the hieroglyphs were used as sounds in royal proper names. He was led to this conclusion by tracing the hieroglyphs through the cursive hieratic to the more cursive demotic; and as this last was known to be alphabetic, he deduced that the corresponding hieroglyphic signs were 80. In this manner, he came to the conclusion that the first hieroglyph in the name of Ptolemy in the Rosetta stone (a mat) represented a P; the second (hemisphere) a T; the third (a loop) he supposed to be superfluous; the fourth (a lion) he read OLE; the fifth and sixth, the syllable MI; and seventh, the back of the seat, an S. Unaided by bilingual monuments, he essayed to decipher the name of Berenice, and altogether established the value of five hieroglyphs as letters out of two names, but was unable to proceed further. Champollion, in 1822, by means of an inscription found on an obelisk at Phile, which had at the base a Greek inscription, recognized the name of Cleopatra, and by comparison with that of Ptolemy at once proved the purely alphabetic, not syllabico-alphabetic, nature of the signs. Extending the principle, he read by its means the names of the Greek and Roman and finally those of the native monarchs. It was soon seen that the same hieroglyphs as those used in these names were extensively used in the texts for words, and these words turned out, in most instances, to be analogous to the Coptic. Although the discoveries of Champollior were received by many of the learned in Europe with distrust, yet his method of research was slowly adopted by Rosellini and Salvolini in 1832, and subsequently extended methodically by Lepsius in 1837, and by Bunsen, Hincks, De Rouge, Birch, Goodwin, Chabas, Brugsch, and others.

The method of interpretation adopted has been strictly inductive, the value of the characters being deduced from the equation of sounds, or homophones of similar groups. The meaning of the groups or words has been determined by examining all known instances in which they occur in passages capable of being interpreted, that of the ideographs by observing the form of the symbols; many of them have been made out from the pictures which they explain, or the phonetic groups which accompany them. A careful comparison has been instituted with corresponding Coptic and Hebrew roots when they exist. In short, a careful principle of induction has been applied to the study of the hieroglyphs.

The discovery of another trilingual inscription, that of the tablet at San or Tunis, recording a synodical act of the priests in the reign of Ptolemy Euergetes II., B.C. 238, has confirmed the results obtained by Egyptologists, the meaning of almost all the words having been previously determined; while the power of reading all documents and inscriptions afforded by their researches nas resulted in the resuscitation of a knowledge of the history, science, and literature of the ancient Egyptians. The study has long passed into the category of a recognized branch of oriental learning, and the researches have assumed a more critical form. This has been owing to the number of students and the abundance of material extant and published. The doubts with which the interpretations were at first received have succumbed to the conviction that nothing but a current system of interpretation could have obtained such logical results. Whatever doubt, in fact, may exist as to the minor details and more delicate shades of language, all the grammatical forms and three-fourths of the words of the old Egyptian language have been established.

The hieroglyphs stood in the same relation to the other two forms of writing the character, called hieratic and demotic, as type does to handwriting. Their use was chiefly for official inscriptions on public or private monuments, religious formulæ, and prayers, and rituals or hermetic books (see PAPYRUS). The most remarkable hieroglyphic inscriptions are: that of Una, recording the conquest of the lands of the negroes at the time of the 6th dynasty; in honor of Khnumhetp at Benihassan, recording the investment of his family; the campaigns of Ahmes against the Hykshos at El-Kab; the annals of Thothies III. at Karnak, the campaign of Rameses II. against the Khita, and the treaty with them; the account of the tank for gold-washings in the reign of Seti I. and Rameses II. at Kouban and Redesich; the invasion of Egypt in the reign of Meneptah by the allied forces of the Libyans, Maxyes, Acnaioi or Greeks, Sicilians, Etruscans, Lycians, and other people of the basin of the Mediterranean; the star-risings on the tomb of Rameses V.; the journey of the ark of Khons to Bakhtan, in the reign of Rameses X.; the account of Cambyses and Darius on the statue of the Vatican; the already-cited synodical act of the priests in honor of Ptolemy Euergetes II., and that of the priests assembled at Memphis on the Rosetta stone in the reign of Ptolemy V., the sepulchral tablets of the family of Pasherenptah, and the long series of sepulchral

tablets of the bull Apis found in the Serapeion, recording the birth, installation, and death of the bulls from the 18th dynasty to the Persians.

In connection with the hieroglyphics are two modes of writing them, first the hieratic writing, consisting of a kind of abridged hieroglyphs. The number of these written characters is fewer than that of the hieroglyphs, the generic determinatives being more employed, and the vocalic complements of the consonants being constantly written, in order to distinguish similar forms. This writing was more extensively used than the hieroglyphic, being employed for state papers, legal documents, memoranda, accounts, religious books, rituals, and all the purposes of private and public life. Books were generally written in hieratic. It commences as early as the 4th or 5th dynasty, and terminates only about the 3d or 4th c. of our era. At the earliest period, it is occasionally written perpendicularly, but it was afterwards only written horizontally, and has generally portions in red ink, corresponding to our initial illuminated letters or rubrics. For the literary contents of these rolls, see PAPYRI. Some, indeed, have supposed that the hieratic alphabet gave rise to the Phenician, and have endeavored to trace the Phenician alphabet from hieratic sources. But although much ingenuity has been expended in this inquiry, the precise source of Phenician writing remains involved in obscurity, the principal fact being that a syllabary existed long prior to the Phenician alphabet, which did not reach the perfection of the Greeks, owing to the suppression of vowels. The second kind of hieroglyphic handwriting was the demotic, or so-called enchorial. It was a still further reduction of the hieratic, simpler forms being used, while the complements are not used, and it approaches still nearer the alphabetic system. It contains an alphabet of 42 letters and a syllabary of 48 characters, and is less rich in the number of determinatives and ideographs than the hieratic. It is, like all cursive hands, more difficult to decipher than the hieratic. It was introduced into the Egyptian graphic system about the commencement of the 26th dynasty, or the 6th C. B.C., and continued in use till the 3d c. A.D. This was the last native form of writing in Egypt, the early Christians having introduced the Greek alphabet, with a few characters borrowed from the demotic. This script is rarely used for public monuments, although it appears on the Rosetta stone; but it was universally employed for contracts, public documents, and occasionally for religious formula, owing to the decreasing knowledge of hieroglyphics. At the time of Clement, it was the first learned by beginners. With it the Greek language began to appear in public use.

Besides the Egyptian hieroglyphics there are those of the Aztecs or Mexican, which were a kind of pure picture-writing, the names of monarchs, towns, and other things being painted by the objects which corresponded to their names. While in their historical writings the events themselves were portrayed, the number of the years of the reign of the king was indicated by placing in a line en potence in the picture the symbols of the years of the Aztec cycle, which were named after plants and animals. The Mexican hieroglyphs, in fact, consisted of conventional pictures, and they had no means of expressing grammatical form or any structural parts of a language. This mode of pure picture-writing prevailed not only in Mexico, but amongst the nations of Central America. The knowledge of these symbols has unfortunately been almost lost since the Spanish conquest, the meaning of only a few having been rescued from oblivion in the 16th c., when the greater part of the Aztec MSS. was destroyed by the Spanish ecclesiastics. It has indeed been asserted that the monks used these symbols, according to their sounds, to write the Lord's prayer and other formulas; thus a flag, pronounced pantti, was used for the syllable pa; a stone, tetl, for tě, the two expressing pater; a cactus-fruit, nochtli, for noch; and a stone, as above, for te: these four groups expressing pate(r) nochte, or noster; and so forth. This seems to show the development of a phonetic system, but it was never extensively used on account of the abhorrence entertained of the Aztec idolatry.-The term hieroglyphic was also used by the writers of emblemata or devices, symbolizing gnomic sentences taken from the Greek and Latin poets, and having no relation to Egyptian hieroglyphs.—In recent times, too, the astrological almanacs have had their symbolical representations and supposed prognostics of future events, which they called hieroglyphs.-Zoega, De Origine Obeliscorum (fo. Romæ, 1797); Young, Archeologia (1817, vol. xvii. p. 60); Encyclop. Britannica (8th ed.); Champollion, Précis du Système Hieroglyphique (1824); Grammaire Egyptienne (1841-61); Dictionnaire (1841); Lepsius, in the Ann. del' Instituto Arch. (1828); Birch, Introduction to the Study of the Hieroglyphics (1857); Brugsch, Grammaire Démotique (Berl. 1855), Wörterbuch (1867– 68), Grammatik (1872); De Rougé, Etude d'une Stêle Egyptienne (1858); Chabas, Papyrus Magique d'Harris (1861); Zeitschrift. f. ägypt. Sprache (1863-74); Bunsen, Egypt's Place (vol. v. 1867).

HIERON'YMITES, one of the many hermit (q.v.) orders established in the course of the 13th and 14th centuries. The Hieronymites grew out of the third order of St. Francis. See FRANCISCANS. Some of the followers of Thomas of Siena, one of the Franciscan rigorists, having established themselves in various places among the wild districts which skirt the Sierra Morena, by degrees formed into a community, and obtained in 1374 the approval of pope Gregory XI., who confirmed their rule, which was founded on that of St. Augustine. The institute extended into other provinces of Spain, and also into Portugal; it was subsequently established in Italy, Tyrol, and Bavaria.

HIERONYMUS, King of Syracuse, grandson of Hiero II., succeeded to his grand father at the age of 15, 216 B.C. Up to this time a close friendship had subsisted between the Romans and Syracusans. But the battle of Cannæ, in which the Romans were so terribly defeated, disposed many of the Syracusans to join the Carthaginians. Hiero II. had appointed 15 guardians, including Andranodorus and Zoippus, to guide the young prince, but through the intrigues of Andranodorus, who was favorable to the Carthaginians, the guardians were all induced to resign their office. The young prince was now entirely under the influence of Andranodorus and Zoippus, who were sons-inlaw to Hiero II. Communications were at once opened up with Hannibal. The Carthaginian envoys were received with great favor, whereas the Roman envoys were treated with contumely. Hieronymus was preparing to take the field against the Romans with 15,000 men, when he was assassinated in Leonitini by conspirators under Deinomenes. His short reign of one year and one month was disgraced by indulgence in luxury, debauchery, and cruelty.

HIERONYMUS. See JEROME.

HIEROPHANT, or MYSTAGOGUE, the priest who presided over the mysteries at Eleusis, was always selected from the family of Eumolpus, who was regarded as their founder, and the first hierophant. The hierophant was required to be a man of ripe years, without any physical defect, endowed with a fine voice, and of spotless character. He was forbidden to marry, but it is not improbable that married men were likewise appointed hierophants, and were merely prohibited from forming a second marriage. In the mysteries the hierophant represented the demiurge or creator of the universe. He alone was authorized to preserve and explain the unwritten laws, to introduce candidates into the temple at Eleusis, and gradually initiate them into the lesser and greater mysteries. On this account, he was likewise styled mystagogue and prophet, and no one was allowed to utter his name in the presence of an uninitiated person. At public solemnities he carried the image of the goddess splendidly attired.

HIESTER, JOSEPH, 1752-1832; b. Penn.; a merchant. In the war of the revolution he raised, armed, and led a volunteer company. He was wounded in the battle of Long Island, captured and confined on board the prison-ship Jersey. He was in congress for 14 years, and in 1821-23 was governor of his state.

HIGGINSON, FRANCIS, 1588-1630; b. England; educated at Cambridge, and was a rector in Leicester, but was deprived of his benefice for non-conformity. Arriving at Salem, Mass., in 1629, he became teacher of the congregation at that place. He wrote New England's Plantation, or a Short and True Description of the Commodities and Discommodities of the Country, and also an account of his voyage.

HIGGINSON, JOHN, 1616-1708; son of Francis, b. England. He accompanied his father to Massachusetts, and settled as a preacher in Guilford, Conn. In 1660 he was pastor of the First church in Salem, and passed the remainder of his life there. He was 72 years in the ministry.

HIGGINSON, THOMAS WENTWORTH, b. Mass., 1823; a descendant of Francis Higginson, graduated at Harvard college in 1841, and at the divinity school in Cambridge in 1847; after which he became the minister of the "First religious society" in Newburyport. His antislavery principles offended a part of his congregation, causing him to resign in 1850. Two years later he became minister of a free church" in Worcester. He was the leader of the men who in 1853 attempted to effect the rescue of Anthony Burns, a fugitive slave confined in the court-house in Boston, in custody of the U. S. marshal. The attempt was unsuccessful, and he was wounded in the face by a saber cut. One of the marshal's men having been killed in the fray, Mr. Higginson was indicted for murder, but not convicted. In 1856 he went to Kansas and took an active part in the measures by which that state was prevented from becoming an abode of slavery. He now relinquished the ministry to devote himself to literature, but on the breaking out of the war of the secession he exerted himself to procure enlistments, and entered the service with the rank of capt. In 1862 he was appointed col. of the first regiment of South Carolina volunteers, the first regiment of emancipated slaves that entered the service. He led this regiment for two years, making various expeditions within the confederate lines, and capturing Jacksonville, Fla. In Aug., 1863, he was wounded, and in 1864 was compelled on that account to retire from the service. He then took up his residence at Newport, R. I., and resumed the literary labors which had been interrupted by the war. Since that time he has published Outdoor Papers; Harvard Memorial Biographies; Malbone, an Oldport Romance; Army Life in a Black Regiment; Atlantic Essays; Oldport Days; a new translation of Epictetus; Commonsense about Women, a Life of Margaret Fuller; The Monarch of Dreams; Hints on Writing and Speech-making; Afternoon Landscape, etc. In 1878 he removed to Cambridge, Mass., where he still resides. He represented that city in the general court in 1880; and was appointed State military and naval historian in 1889. In 1896 he presented the Boston public library with 1,000 volumes relating to the history of woman.

HIGHBINDERS, a name used in California to designate the disorderly and dangerous Chinamen domiciled there. They are not connected with the Six Companies (q. v.), nor

Highlands.

are they organized among themselves, but act in an irresponsible, lawless way for and among themselves. They are men without regular occupation, living as best they can upon the Chinese communities, as keepers of evil resorts, gamblers, parasites upon prostitutes, thieves, and criminals generally. There seems to be no evidence that the "high binders" have any definite organization though the contrary opinion is generally prevalent. The name is generally explained as "high" (in a slang sense) and “binder," a variation of "bender," meaning, therefore, a fellow given to dissipation. It was originally applied to any rough, and was in use in New York and Baltimore as early as 1849, but has gradually become restricted to its present application.

HIGHER CRITICISM, THE, the name first prominently given by Eichhorn, about 1780, to the more profound, varied, but often visionary inquiries by which different classes of students in this century have been seeking to determine the genuineness, authority, literary history, date, and interpretation of ancient writings. Especially concerning the Scriptures have such inquiries been prosecuted with great zeal and boldness. As one illustration of the whole work, we refer to the theories advanced concerning the structure, authorship, history, and date of the Pentateuch. The critics profess to draw their conclusions from their own judgment in regard to the style, diction, and qualities of thought, the supposed development of laws, and the order in which successive enactments may have been made. Thus many divisions of the Pentateuch have been elaborated, each divider pronouncing confidently the age of the different portions, as well as demonstrating the influences under which they were written, and one often positively contradicting and setting aside the equally positive judgments of another. The method has much value, but in the way of suggestion rather than of assured result.

HIGHER LIFE, THE, a name given to an advanced state of Christian grace which many persons claim to have reached in this life through the special work of the Spirit of God in their hearts. They call it also Entire Holiness, Full Salvation, and Christian Perfection. So far as it is in accordance with the teaching of Scripture, the difference between this view and the usual Christian opinion-that sanctification is a gradual work not perfectly finished in this life-seems to be chiefly a difference of terms. For while "Entire Holiness is a complete cleansing from moral defilement or sin," it is also to be distinguished from "that Christian maturity which is not to be attained this side of heaven." While it is a state to be reached in this life, it may also be lost. Some profess that they have had it several times, but have lost it. They even who retain their entire holiness are liable, it is said, "to involuntary transgressions, which are infirmities needing atonement, but are not sins." And the standard set up by the gospel has been lowered, as such persons affirm, so as to be adapted to the weakened powers of fallen man. Coming up to this lowered standard seems to be what they call Christian perfection. HIGH EXPLOSIVES. See EXPLOSIVES OF HIGH POWER.

HIGH GATE, a northern suburb of London, in the county of Middlesex, and a station on the Highgate and Edgeware railway, 5 m. n.n. w. of St. Paul's. It comprises many elegant villas, and some important benevolent institutions.

HIGH JOINT COMMISSION. See GENEVA ARBITRATION.

HIGHLAND, a co. in s. w. Ohio, on the Baltimore and Ohio S. W. railroad; 527 sq. m.; pop. '90, 29,048. The surface is generally level, and largely covered with timber. The soil is fertile; main products, corn, wheat, oats, and pork. Co. seat, Hillsboro.

HIGHLAND, a co. in Virginia, bordering on w. Virginia, watered by affluents of the Potomac; 389 sq. m.; pop. '90, 5352, with colored. Surface rough, being invaded by a range of the Alleghany mountains. The valleys are fertile, producing corn, wheat, etc. Co. seat, Monterey.

HIGHLAND FLING, a dance peculiar to the Scotch Highlands. It is danced to the music of the Strathspey, which is characterized by dotted notes preceding long notes called the Scottish snap. The Highland Fling abounds in jerky motions which call the entire body into play.

HIGH LANDS, a term generally applied to the higher parts of a country, as, for example, Highlands of the Hudson, as defining a certain high and picturesque region on the river Hudson, in the state of New York; but the term has a more special application to a particular district in Scotland. This district has no political or civil boun dary. Separated by only a vague line of demarkation from the division called the Lowlands, the Scottish Highlands may be briefly described as that portion of the n. and n. w. of Scotland in which the Celtic language and manners have less or more lingered until modern times. The Highland line, as it is usually called, extends diagonally across the country from Nairn on the Moray firth to Dumbarton on the Clyde;. but the mountainous part of the counties of Banff, Moray, Aberdeen, Kincardine, and Perth are also understood to be included in the designation Highlands. Caithness might be excluded as being a generally level country; but throughout the Highlands there are rich level tracts, none being more so than the eastern division of Ross-shire, The Hebrides (q.v.) or Western isles are included in the H., but Orkney and Shetland, though to the n., are excluded, because of the Norwegian origin of the inhabitants. The Highlands are full of lofty hills, some green and pastoral with tracts of heath,

and others rugged and bare, varying in height from 1000 to 4000 ft., and having gen. erally narrow valleys between, or else lakes and arms of the sea, called lochs. Besides the grander features, there are impetuous mountain torrents, picturesque ravines, and valleys or glens, in which, and on the sides of the hills, are seen the huts of the aborigines. Perhaps the most remarkable feature in the country is the line of valleys from Inverness to fort William, in which lies a series of navigable lochs, united by artificial channels to form the Caledonian canal. Growing up under a system of clanship, the state of society in the Highlands was antiquated and unsatisfactory, in a national point of view; while the country was almost impenetrable to travelers, or to any species of traffic. The first great attempt to reform this state of affairs was the opening up of the country by roads in different directions, under the superintendence of Gen. Wade, about 1725-26. The next great act of melioration was the abolition of heritable jurisdictions (q.v.), including the ancient privileges of the heads of clans, about 1748. And lastly, not to speak of the planting of schools and churches, much was done by the establishment of the Highland and agricultural society in 1784. Since these events, the ancient patriarchal system has given place to improvements as regards communications, agriculture, dwellings, education, and other modern conditions, including a gradual substitution of English for the Gaelic language.

HIGHLANDS OF THE HUDSON, a range of hills and mountains, seemingly a continuation of the Blue Ridge of Virginia, connecting with and including the Palisades, appearing e. of the Hudson river in the vicinity of West Point, and extending with gradually lessening elevations to the Green mountains of Vermont. In their course there may be found much splendid scenery.

HIGH MASS. See MASS.

HIGHNESS, a title of honor given to princes. The titles "your highness" and "your grace" were both used in England in former times in addressing the sovereign, but were supplanted by "your majesty" towards the end of the reign of Henry VIII. The children of royal personages are addressed "your royal highness;" those of emperors, "your imperial highness." The sultan of Turkey is addressed as “your highness."

HIGH PLACES (Heb. bamoth), the name given in Scripture to certain places where illicit worship was performed by the people of Israel. The practice of erecting altars on elevated situations was common in ancient times, and originated in the belief that hill-tops were nearer heaven, and, therefore, the most favorable places for prayer and incense. The fathers of the Jewish nation acted in this respect just like their neighbors. Abraham, we are told, built an altar to the Lord on a mountain near Bethel. The Mosaic law, however, true to its grand aim of secur ing national strength and purity by a vigorous system of isolation, prohibited the practice for the future, on the ground that the spots which the Israelites would be compelled to choose had been already polluted by idolatrous services. In spite of the vehemence with which the bigh places are again and again denounced in the Pentateuch, the prohibition seems to have been a long time in producing the desired effect-if, indeed, it ever really accomplished it. During the whole eventful period of the judges, it was not only practically obsolete, but we actually find that both Gideon and Manoah built altars on high places by divine command (Judges, vi. 25, 26; xiii. 16-23.) It also occasions much surprise to read of the violations of the injunction -among others by Samuel at Mizpeh and Bethlehem, by Saul at Gilgal, by David, by Elijah on Mt. Carmel. The explanations given by the rabbis of these contradictions between the conduct of the prophets and kings of the Hebrew people, and the commands of their great lawgiver, are too absurd for mention. Whatever may be the true explanation, it is quite certain that worship in high places was almost universal in Judea, both during and after the time of Solomon. The results were such as might have been anticipated. The people erected altars not only to Jehovah but to Baal, and from worshiping in idolatrous places, proceeded to worship idols themselves. At a later period (see books of Kings and Chronicles) a series of vigorous efforts was made by the more pious monarchs to suppress the practice.

HIGH-PRIEST (Heb. kohen haggadol, or emphat. kohen, Gr. archiereus, Lat. primus pontifex, etc.), the chief of the Jewish priesthood. His dignity was hereditary in the line of Eleazar, the son of Aaron, and many more restrictions attached to it than belonged to the ordinary office of a priest. He was only allowed to marry an intact virgin, and one of his own tribe; every impure contact even of the dead bodies of his own parents he was strictly forbidden, besides having to abstain from many other things that might cause any defilement whatever. His functions consisted principally in the general administration of the sanctuary and all that belonged to the sacred service. He alone was allowed to enter the holy of holies on the day of atonement, and to consult the urim and thummim (q.v.). No less was his costume of surpassing costliness and splendor, comprising numerous vestments in addition to those of the ordinary priests. This brilliant costume, however, was laid aside by the high-priest when, on the day of atonement, he went to perform the most awful service in the holy of holies: a simple garb of white linen-the funeral dress of the Jews in later times-was all he wore on that occasion. The revenues of the high-priest were in the main the same as those of the other priests; but, according to the Talmud, he was to be richer than these.