Wolff and Kant. He became the pupil of Fichte, and received his philosophy with enthusiasm; but after more reflection, he found himself obliged to reject much of his system, and to form one of his own. In 1805 he was appointed extraordinary professor of Göttingen; in 1809 he obtained the chair of philosophy at Königsberg. In 1833 he returned to Göttingen, where he remained till his death, Aug. 14, 1841. His collected works were published by his scholar Hartenstein (12 vols., Leip. 1850-52). The starting-point of Herbart's metaphysics is the thesis that the ordinary (metaphysical or popular) conceptions of a thing with attributes, change, matter, and selfconsciousness contain in themselves contradiction. The multiplicity and variety of the world of phenomena cannot be explained on the hypothesis of only one real (substance); a multiplicity of reals (monads) must be assumed, and out of their mutual relations time, space, nature, and thought arise. In ethics, Herbart rejects Kant's autonomy of the pure reason as basis, and founds on developed and cultured feeling or commonsense-in this resembling Shaftesbury. The five practical ideas are freedom, perfection, benevolence, justice, and fairness. In psychology, Herbart endeavored, by regarding ideas or states of mind as so many physical forces, to understand their relations to one another at any given time by help of a most elaborately wrought-out mathematical calculus. The Pædagogic of Herbart is admirably practical. In opposition to contemporary idealism, Herbart called his system realism. On the fall of Hegelianism in Germany, Herbart's system became very influential, and has still numerous adherents in the German universities. See De Garmo, Herbart and the Herbartians (N. Y., 1895); and PEDAGOGY. HERBELOT, BARTHÉLEMY D', a celebrated orientalist, was b. in Paris, Dec. 4, 1625, and finally became professor of Syriac in the college of France. He died at Paris, Dec. 8, 1695. His celebrated work, the Bibliothèque Orientale, was published after his death by Galland (Paris, 1697), and afterwards with a supplement (Maestricht, 1776–81); but the best edition is that published at the Hague (1777-82, 4 vols.). It is unfortunate that Herbelot was unable to give the finishing touch to a work which had cost him so much labor and research, and which, in spite of the errors, repetitions, contradictions, and omissions which one meets with, still bears a deservedly high character. It contains extracts from a multitude of Arabian, Persian, and Turkish authors. HERBERT. This name, which stands forth prominently upon the records of British history, has been ennobled at various times, in so many of its branches, by so many ancient and renewed creations, that it has become a matter of difficulty to ascertain with certainty which is the parent stem; though sir Bernard Burke is inclined to give the representation of the house to Henry Arthur Herbert, M.P., of Muckross, co. Kerry. It is certain that the Herberts came over to England in the train of William the Conqueror, for Herbert, count of Vermandois, who afterwards filled the post of chamberlain under William II., is mentioned in the roll of Battle abbey, and received from his Sovereign a grant of lands in Hampshire. His wife Emma, daughter of Stephen, count of Blois, was a granddaughter of the Conqueror and his son Herbert (called in history Herbert of Winchester) was chamberlain and treasurer to king Henry I. Seven or eight generations later, we find the Herberts diverging into several distinct branches, including the lines of the earls of Powis (now extinct in the male line), of the lords Herbert of Cherbury (also extinct), the Herberts of Muckross (ancestors of the gentleman mentioned above), and also several untitled branches which have flourished upon their ancestral lands in England, Wales, and Ireland. In the reign of Henry V., sir William Herbert, of Raglan castle, co. Monmouth, received the honor of knighthood in reward of his valor in the French wars. His eldest son, a stanch adherent of the house of York, was created earl of Pembroke* by Edward IV. in 1469, but fell into the hands of the Lancastrians after the battle of Danes moor, and was beheaded the following day, when the title became extinct. It was, however, revived in 1551, in the person of his (illegitimate) grandson, William Herbert, K.G., one of the most influential noblemen of his age, and one who took an active part in public affairs, both as a statesman and as a soldier. It is recorded by sir B. Burke that he rode on Feb. 17, 1552-53, to his mansion of Baynard's castle, with 300 horse in his retinue, 100 of them being gentlemen in plain blue cloth, with chains of gold, and badges of a dragon on their sleeves." He was buried in old St. Paul's, and his funeral was conducted on such a scale of magnificence that, according to Stowe, the mourning given away on that occasion cost £2,000-a very large sum in those days. By his wife, who was a sister of Catharine Parr (the last queen of Henry VIII.), he had a son Henry, second earl, K.G., to whose countess, Mary, daughter of sir Henry Sydney, K.G., Sir Philip Sydney dedicated his Arcadia. She is celebrated by Ben Jonson in the well-known lines Underneath this marble hearse The fourth earl, some time lord chamberlain to Charles I., and chancellor of the university of Oxford, was the founder of Jesus college in that seat of learning. The eighth earl held several high offices under queen Anne, including that of lord high admiral. *The earldom of Pembroke was originally conferred on Richard de Clare, the celebrated Strongbow, who aided Henry II. in the conquest of Ireland. From him the present earl of Pembroke (George Robert Charles Herbert, born in 1850) is directly descended. The late lord Herbert (q.v.) of Lea-better known as Mr. Sidney Herbert-was the younger brother of the late, and father of the present, earl. The earls of Carnarvon, more than one of whom have gained celebrity in the field of literature, descend from the eighth earl of Pembroke mentioned above. The present earls of Powis are descended from the same stock maternally, the only child and heiress of the last earl of Powis of a previous creation having married the eldest son of the illustrious Robert Clive, the founder of our Indian empire, in whose favor that title was renewed in 1804. HERBERT, EDWARD, Baron Herbert of Cherbury, who is commonly reckoned the first of the English deistical writers, was b. of a noble family in the year 1582, at Montgomery castle, in north Wales. In his autobiography, he has described his early love for inquiry and his scrupulous truthfulness. He was sent to Oxford in his twelfth year, and before he had quite quitted his studies he married an heiress. On the occasion of the coronation of James I., he was made a knight, and invested with various offices. Although his marriage was happy enough, there appears to have been little warmth of affection between him and his wife, who was considerably older than himself. He left home, accordingly, for travel in France in 1608, and from this time resided very much abroad. In Paris, he lived on terms of intimacy with the constable Montmorency, Jean Casaubon, and other distinguished men. After a brief return to his native country, he set out again in 1610 for the low countries, where he joined the arms of the brave Maurice of Orange. For this prince he contracted a great affection, and again offered him his services in 1614. After a campaign, he traveled through Germany and Italy on horseback, and went as far as Venice, Florence, and Rome. On his return, he got into trouble from an attempt which he made to raise a troop of Protestant soldiers in Languedoc for the duke of Savoy. Shortly after, he returned to England, and proposed to devote himself to study and philosophical inquiry; but high and important diplomatic duties awaited him. He was made a member of the privy council, and sent to France as extraordinary ambassador. His aim was to promote the alliance between France and England, and he was so far successful that he was appointed ordinary ambassador, and continued to reside at Paris. He tried, but without much success, the difficult task of negotiation between Louis XIII. and his Protestant subjects. He was elevated first to be a peer of Ireland, and then in 1630, five years after the accession of Charles I., to be a peer of England, with the title of Baron Herbert of Cherbury. When the civil war broke out, he appears to have acted with hesitation, at first siding with the parliament and then joining the king. His hereditary seat, Montgomery castle, was attacked and burned. He died in London in the year 1648. The character of Herbert, as depicted in his autobiography, is in the main that of a gallant adventurer, equally fired with the love of arms and of arts, at once a soldier and a scholar. He is the gay man of the world, always truthful, honorable, and highspirited; yet he has thoughts above those of the world; he ponders deeply the great questions of truth and religion, and has left us the result of his speculations in his two treatises, De Veritate and De Religione Gentilium. The reader will find an admirable analysis of the first and more important of these treatises in Hallam's Literary History. They are only interesting to the philosophical student, or to the inquirer into the history of religious opinion in England. Herbert's position at the fountain-head of English deism gives them a peculiar significance. He is far, however, from being skeptical, in the modern sense of the term. His speculations are those of a philosophical dogmatist rather than of a critical inquirer. His arguments are abstract and deductive, and not analytical or negative. He offers solutions rather than starts difficulties or obtrudes negations; and in this respect Herbert is rightly reckoned the first of English deists, the writings of all of whom partake more or less of the same character; although it is not easy to trace any links of direct connection between him and the outburst of deistical literature in the end of the 17th and beginning of the 18th century. HERBERT, GEORGE, an English poet, and fifth brother of lord Herbert of Cherbury (q.v.), was b. in Montgomery castle, Wales, on April 3, 1593. He was educated at Westminster, and was sent to Trinity college, Cambridge, about 1608. In 1615 he was elected fellow; and in 1619 he was promoted to the office of public orator. At the university he made the acquaintance of lord Bacon; and in the hope of preferment, he was induced to spend a considerable portion of his time about the court. On the death of James I., he studied divinity, and finally took holy orders. He was made prebendary of Leighton Bromswold in 1626. He married in 1630; and in the same year, received the rectory of Bemerton. Two years after, at the early age of 39, he died of the effects of a quotidian ague. His principal poetical production, printed in 1633, a year after his death, is entitled The Temple, or Sacred Poems and Private Ejaculations, and, although disfigured by fantastic conceits, contains several passages of the purest pious verse which the language possesses. He wrote a prose work, The Country Parson, which lays down rules for the guidance of a clergyman's life, and which may be considered a pendant to The Temple. His life was written by Izaak Walton, and to that quaint and loving pen, even more than to his own Temple songs, he owes his immor. tality. HERBERT, HENRY WILLIAM, 1807-58; b. London; the son of the dean of Manchester; graduated at Cambridge; emigrated to New York in 1831, and for eight years taught Greek in a private school. He was for three years (1833-36) editor of the American Monthly Magazine. In 1834 he began to publish works of fiction, of which seven or more appeared within 20 years. He wrote also a number of historical works; but his forte was as a writer on field-sports, on which subject, under the name of "Frank Forrester," he was without a rival. His works were very popular. HERBERT, HILARY ABNER, was born at Laurensville, S. C., March 12, 1834. He was educated at the Univ. of Alabama and the Univ. of Virginia, and adopted the profession of law. In the civil law Mr. Herbert commanded the Eighth Alabama (Confederate) regiment, and was disabled at the battle of the Wilderness in 1864. In 1876, 1880, 1882, 1884, 1886, 1888, and 1890, he was elected to Congress from Alabama, and long served on the Committee on Naval Affairs, and was prominently identified with the reconstruction of the navy. In 1893 President Cleveland made him secretary of the navy, an appointment that was received with general favor. HERBERT, LORD, OF LEA (SIDNEY HERBERT), minister and statesman, son of the eleventh earl of Pembroke by his second wife, was b. at Richmond in 1810. Educated at Harrow and at Oriel college, Oxford, he devoted himself to public life, and entered the house of commons in 1832 as member for South Wilts, which he represented until his elevation to the peerage in 1861. He began his political career as a conservative, and was secretary to the admiralty in sir R. Peel's administration from 1841 to 1845, when he became secretary-at-war. As a member of this administration, it fell to him to oppose Mr. Cobden's motion for a select committee to inquire into the effect of the corn-laws on farmers, and, afterwards, to argue in support of free trade in corn. He went out of office with his party in 1846. In 1852 he was again secretary-at-war, under the Aberdeen ministry, and, in consequence, the "horrible and heart-rending sufferings" of the army before Sebastopol were laid in a great degree at his door. He was for a few weeks colonial secretary in the first administration of lord Palmerston in 1855, and secretary-at-war in his second administration in 1859. Great improvements in the sanitary condition and education of the army, the amalgamation of the Indian with the royal army, and the organization of the volunteer force, signalized his army administration. He largely reformed the war-office, and was devoting himself with equal zeal and intelligence to his ministerial duties, when, owing to failing health, he resigned his seat in the house of commons, and in 1861 was called to the upper house, under the title of Baron Herbert of Lea. But release from labor came too late, for he died Aug. 2, 1861. He was heir-presumptive to the twelfth earl of Pembroke. He had great aptitude for business, winning and genial manners, great readiness and fluency in debate, and a boundless philanthropy. He was a liberal patron of the arts, as shown by his Lombardian church at Wilton. HERBERT, Sir THOMAS, 1606-82; an English traveler and author. He was in the suite of sir Dodmore Cotton, who was about to leave as ambassador for Persia in company with sir Robert Shirley. Sailing in March, 1627, they visited the cape, Madagas car, Goa, and Surat; having landed at Gombroon, they traveled inland to Asharoff, and thence to Cazbeen, where both the chiefs of the expedition died. Herbert reached England again in 1629, and in 1630, to his great disappointment, his patron the earl of Pembroke died suddenly. After this he traveled on the continent for more than a year. From his return in 1631 till about two years after his marriage in 1632 he retained his ambition for court favor, but failing in this he retired, probably to his estate of Tintern in Monmouthshire, till the outbreak of the civil war, when he sided with the parliament. In 1646 he was appointed to attend the king with his other servants. Becoming a devoted royalist, he continued with his majesty during the last two eventful years of his life, and at the restoration he was rewarded with the title of baronet. He resided at Westminster till the great plague, when he returned to York and bought Petergate house, where he died. HERBERT, VICTOR, composer and conductor; b. in Dublin, Feb. 1, 1859; educated at Stuttgart. He came to New York in 1886. His cantata, The Captive, was produced at the Worcester (Mass.) festival of 1891. He succeeded P. S. Gilmore as conductor of the latter's band in New York. HERBIVORA, Lat. plant-eaters, an order of ungulate or hoofed mammals, which feed wholly upon vegetable food, using their limbs for support and locomotion only. The animals in this order have been differently classified by different naturalists. Cuvier divided them into two orders, the pachydermata and ruminantia. The pachydermata comprises the thick-skinned herb-eaters, as the elephant, rhinoceros, tapir, hog, hippopotamus, horse, and others. In the ruminantia, or cud-chewers, he placed the deer, the antelope, the sheep, the ox, and like animals. If Cuvier's orders are placed in one, then the herbivora will contain the suborders proboscidians (elephants), tapiridians, having long noses, but not prehensile or only very slightly so, as in the rhinoceros and tapir; the suidians, having long but not at all prehensile snouts, as the hog and the hippopotamus; the solipedes, or those having one toe only to each foot, and the ruminants, or the cud-chewers. having cloven hoofs. Agassiz, in his classification, placed the herbiv ora with the marsupials and carnivora as the three orders of the eighth class. This classification is not generally followed. HERBS, or HERBA CEOUS PLANTS, in botany, are those in which no persistent woody stem is formed above ground. In some, the stem is woody, but still annual. There is, however, in many a permanent woody rhizome, or root-stock.-In books of gardening, plants used only for flavoring are sometimes distinguished as sweet herbs, as mint, basil, etc.; whilst those valued for their nutritive qualities are known as pot-herbs. HERCULA'NEUM, an ancient city of Italy, was situated at the north-western base of Mt. Vesuvius, about 5 m. e. of Naples. Considerable obscurity envelops its early history; it is supposed, however, to have been of Phenician origin, and to have been occupied afterwards by Pelasgians and Oscans. It subsequently was conquered, with all the rest of Campania, by the Samnites, and later it fell into the hands of the Romans. In 63 A.D. the city was seriously injured by a violent earthquake; and in 79 it was buried, along with Pompeii and Stabies, by the memorable eruption of Vesuvius (q. v.) which took place in that year. It now lies at a depth of from 70 to 120 ft. below the surface, and is filled up and covered with volcanic tufa, composed of sand and ashes, and consolidated to some extent by water, which is often thrown up in great quantities during volcanic eruptions. Above it, on the modern surface, are the two large villages Portici and Resina. In the latter, in 1706, on the occasion of deepening a well, fragments of mosaics were first brought up; but little was done in the way of systematic excavation till 1738, when explorations were commenced under royal authority. It was then discovered that the building near the bottom of the well, from which the first relics were obtained, was the theater. This building was forthwith explored and cleared, and several statues, both in bronze and marble, were extracted from it. Excavations were carried on but to a limited extent, not only in consequence of the hardness of the tufa, but from the fear of undermining the dwellings on the surface. Hence visitors can see only a very small portion of this entombed city. The chief edifice shown is the theater, which had been very large, and was built but a short time before the fatal eruption. It has 18 rows of stone seats, and could accommodate 8,000 persons. A basilica, two small temples, and a villa have also been discovered; and from these buildings many beautiful statues and remarkable paintings have been obtained. Among the art-relics of Herculaneum, which far exceed in value and interest those found at Pompeii, may be mentioned the statues of Æschines, Agrippina, the Sleeping Faun, the Six Actresses, Mercury, the group of the Satyr and the Goat, the busts of Plato, Scipio Africanus, Augustus, Seneca, Demosthenes, etc. These treasures, together with such vases and domestic implements as have been found, have been conveyed to the museum at Naples. Latterly, the portion of Herculaneum towards the sea, which had been covered only by loose ashes, has been laid open, and ancient buildings may now be seen there. Sec illus., POMPEII AND HERCULANEUM, Vol. XII. HERCULES (Gr. Herakles), called likewise Alcides, after his grandfather Alcæus, was the son of Zeus and Alcmene, and the most celebrated hero of the Greek legends, the ideal of human perfection, as conceived in the heroic ages; i.e., the greatest physical strength, connected with every high quality of mind and character which these ages recognized. He had a bitter enemy in Hera, who, knowing that the child who should be born that day was fated to rule over all the descendants of Perseus, contrived to prolong the travail of Alcmene, who was the daughter of Alcæus, son of Perseus, and hasten that of the wife of Sthenelus, another son of Perseus, who, after a pregnancy of seven months, gave birth to a son, named Eurystheus. Eurystheus thus, by decree of Fate, became chief of the Perseida. Pindar and other subsequent writers relate that, while yet in his cradle, Hercules showed his divine origin by strangling two serpents sent by Hera to destroy him. By Amphitryon's care, he was instructed in all arts by the first masters. Amphitryon now sent him into the country, where he tended the flocks till he was 18 years of age. During this period, as the sophist Prodikos relates in his poem, Hercules, meeting the goddesses of Pleasure and Virtue at the crossways, chose the latter to be the constant companion of his life. His first exploit was the slaying of a lion which haunted Mt. Citharon and ravaged the dominions of king Thespios. Hercules was kindly received by the king, and at length succeeded in destroying the lion. On his return to his native city of Thebes, he not only freed it from the disgrace of having to pay tribute to the Orchomenians, but compelled them to pay double the tribute which they had formerly received. In return for this service, Creon, king of Thebes, gave him his daughter Megara in marriage. At this time, Eurystheus summoned Hercules to appear before him, and ordered him to perform the labors which, by priority of birth, he was empowered to impose upon him. Hercules, unwilling to obey, went to Delphi to consuit the oracle, and was told that he must perform ten labors imposed by Eurystheus, after which he should attain to immor tality. This reply plunged Hercules into the deepest melancholy, which Hera increased to madness, so that he killed his own children by Megara. When he recovered his senses, he returned, submitted to Eurystheus, and addressed himself to the performance of the labors imposed upon him.-The first labor was to destroy the lion which haunted the forests of Nemea and Cleonæ, and could not be wounded by the arrows of a mortal. Hercules boldly attacked him with his club, but in vain; and he was finally obliged to strangle him with his hands. From this time, he wore the lion's skin as armor.-The second was to destroy the Lernæan hydra, which he accomplished with the assistance of his friend Iolaus; but because Hercules obtained assistance in this labor, Eurystheus refused to count it.-His third was to catch the hind of Diana, famous for its swiftness, its golden horns, and brazen feet.-The fourth was to bring alive to Eurystheus a wild boar which ravaged the neighborhood of Erymanthus.-The fifth was to cleanse the stables of Augeas, king of Elis, where 3,000 oxen had been confined for many years, which he accomplished in one day, by turning the rivers Alpheus and Peneus through the stables. But as Hercules had gone to Augeas, and offered to perform this service on payment of a tenth of the cattle, and concealed the fact that he had been commanded to perform it by Eurystheus, the latter, hearing of this, judged that it must not be counted as one of the labors.-His sixth was to destroy the carnivorous birds, with brazen wings, beaks, and claws, which ravaged the country near the lake Stymphalis, in Arcadia. The seventh was to bring alive to Peloponnesus a bull, remarkable for his beauty and strength, which Poseidon, at the prayer of Minos, had given to Minos, king of Crete, in order that he might sacrifice it, which Minos afterwards refusing to do, Poseidon made the bull mad, and it laid waste the island. Hercules brought the bull on his shoulders to Eurystheus, who set it at liberty. It appears again as the Marathonian bull in the story of Theseus.-The eighth labor was to obtain the mares of Diomedes, king of the Bistones in Thrace, which fed upon human flesh.--The ninth was to bring the girdle of Hippolyta, queen of the Amazons.-The tenth labor was to kill the monster Geryon, and bring his herds to Argos. These were all the labors which were originally imposed on Hercules, but as Eurystheus declared the second and fifth unlawfully performed Hercules was ordered to perform two more.-The eleventh was to obtain the golden apples from the garden of the Hesperides. Atlas, who knew where to find the apples, brought them to Hercules, who meanwhile supported the vault of heaven; but according to others, Hercules went himself and stole the apples, after slaying the dragon who guarded them.-The last and most dangerous labor was to bring from the infernal regions the three-headed dog Cerberus. Pluto promised him Cerberus on condition that he should not employ arms, but only force. When Hercules had brought the monster to Eurystheus, the latter, pale with fright, commanded him to be removed. Hercules set him at liberty, whereupon Cerberus immediately sank into the earth. Hercules was now free from his state of servitude. To these well-known "twelve labors" must be added many other achievements, such as his battles with the centaurs and with the giants; his participation in the expedition of the Argonauts; the liberation of Prometheus and Theseus, etc. After accomplishing all these exp.oits, Hercules, while in a state of mental aberration, murdered his faithful friend Iphitus; he was afterwards purified from the murder; but was compelled to sell himself for three years into slavery. When his period of slavery had expired, he returned to Peloponnesus, and some time afterwards became a suitor for the hand of Dejanira, the daughter of Eneus, king of Calydon, whom he married, after having overcome his rival Achelous. With her he now repaired to Trachinia. Having arrived at the river Evenus, he encountered the centaur Nessus. Hercules passed through on foot; but Nessus, under pretense of carrying Dejanira over, attempted to offer her violence; whereupon Hercules slew him with an arrow dipped in the poison of the Lernæan hydra. Nessus, before expiring, instructed Dejanira how to prepare a love-potion for Hercules. The hero now made war against Eurytos (king of Echalia, who had defrauded him), slew him and his sons, and carried off his daughter Iole. Thence he went to Kenæon in Euboea, and erected an altar to Zeus Kenæos. In order to celebrate the rite with due solemnity, he sent Lichas to Trachis for a white garment. Dejanira, being jealous of Iole, anointed the robe with the philter she had received from Nessus. Hercules put it on, and immediately the poison penetrated his bones. Maddened by the terrible pain, he seized Lichas by the feet and flung him into the sea. He tore off the dress, but it stuck to his flesh, which was thus torn from his bones. In this condition Hercules was conveyed by sea to Trachina; and Dejanira, being informed of what had occurred, destroyed herself. Hercules himself repaired to Mt. Eta, where he erected a funeral-pile, and ascending it, commanded that it should be set on fire. The burning pile was suddenly surrounded by a dark cloud, in which, amid thunder and lightning, Hercules was carried up to heaven. There he became reconciled to Hera, and married Hebe. According to most mythologists, there were several heroes of the name of Hercules. Among these are an Indian, an Egyptian, a Tyrian or Phenician, and a Theban Hercules. The last is the most celebrated, and to him the actions of the others have possibly been attributed. Others, who would explain the story of Hercules symbolically, pretend that it conceals an astronomical idea; while others discover in this myth the history of the early development of Greece. On the astronomical hypothesis, the twelve labors of Hercules are simply the course of the sun through the twelve signs of the zodiac, which the plastic poetry of the Greeks has converted into a legend. According to Max Müller, Hercules was the sun-god, and the legend of his death symbolizes the sunset: "In his last journey Hercules proceeds from east to west. He proceeds from the Kenson promontory to Trachis, and then to Mount Eta, where his pile is raised. The coat which Dejanira sends to the solar hero is an expression frequently used in |