Great Britain.

THE UNITED KINGDOM OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND is, since the union of Ireland, the full official designation of the country more generally known as Great Britain, Britain, or the United Kingdom. In addition to the home territories, Great Britain possesses a multitude of dependencies scattered over every part of the globe, and constituting "an empire on which the sun never sets."

The following tables exhibit the extent and population of the several constituent parts of this empire (1821-81).

In 1891 the population of England and Wales was 30,001,018; of Ireland, 4,706,162; of Scotland, 4,033,000. This shows a loss in Ireland of 9.1 per cent. in ten years. The total pop. of Great Britain and Ireland in 1891, was 33,740,180.

Agriculture. The soil of the United Kingdom is almost exclusively devoted to the production of the two necessaries-breadstuffs and grass (roots, etc., for domestic animals). The soil is in fewer hands than that of any other country of Europe. Official returns for 1875 and 1876 gave as the total number of owners, exclusive of the metropolis, 1,173,794. The area of cultivable and pasture area in England is 77 per cent, of the total acreage, in Wales, 60 per cent., in Scotland, 25 per cent., and in Ireland, 72 per cent. In 1896 Great Britain had 7,416,690 acres in corn crops, and 3,258,591 in green crops; Ireland, 1,420,721 acres in corn crops, and 1,147,717 in green crops. The produce of wheat in Great Britain in 1896 was 57,053,000 bushels (against 104,000,000 in 1830), barley 70,775,000 bushels, and oats 114,016,000 bushels. The number of farms or holdings of various sizes in 1885 was, in England 414,950, in Wales 60,190, in Scotland 80,715, a total of 555,855, of which 663 contained 1000 acres each, and 23,512 ranged from acre to one acre. In Ireland, in 1895, there were 574,786 holdings, of which 1,557 exceeded 500 acres each, and 59,508 did not exceed one acre. The great problem which confronts the English economist, is to find a means of checking the rapid decline in agriculture. It is due largely to the increase of imports of grain from foreign countries. The fair trade party opposes the free trade policy of the government, holding that the repeal of the corn laws was a serious blow to British agriculture. The cheapening of the transportation in recent years, with the result of bringing into competition with the English agricultural products those of the United States and other distant lands, has driven much of the area of Great Britain out of cultivation. This decline has been made the subject of official investigation, from which it would appear that in a period of a little over 20 years the total area under wheat declined nearly one-half. În the northern counties of Northumberland, Cumberland, Lancashire, Cheshire, and the N. Riding of Yorkshire, the area under wheat had declined, in 1893, to one-third of what it

had been in 1869. The decline in barley has not been so great, and the production of oats has actually increased. Some crops have remained stationary, but the present condition of agriculture, as compared with its former state, may be illustrated by the fact that the area of pasturage has increased by nearly one-third.

Manufactures.--For a long period Great Britain has been the leading industrial nation; her manufactures of metal wares and textiles have been famous for three centuries. The woolen industry was the earliest to become important, but it was not indigenous to England. English sovereigns induced Flemish artisans to take up their residence in the country with a view to improving the woolen manufactures. Some of these artisans settled in England toward the close of the 11th century, and more came in during the 14th century and the latter half of the 15th century. Before the 16th century had far advanced, the English exported woolen goods to a considerable extent, although they were obliged to depend on the Dutch for the dressing and finishing of the cloth. Before the middle of the 18th century, various mechanical inventions gave a great impetus to the woolen manufactures. At that period, it is estimated that these manufactures formed over 40 per cent. of the exports. Among these mechanical inventions were the fly-shuttle (1733); the spinning machine, patented by Arkwright about 1769; and the spinning-jenny of Hargreaves, patented in 1770. Then came the spinning-mule, invented by Crompton, and patented in 1779, and the power-loom of Cartwright, in 1785. These inventions applied more especially to the cotton than to the woolen industry, but the latter was stimulated by them, as were all the textile industries. Before the close of the 18th century the English woolen industry was regarded as unrivaled, for in the meanwhile they had profited from Watt's various inventions, rendering the steam engine an agent in textile manufactures. London was at one time an important centre of the woolen industry. The manufacture was introduced into Manchester by the Flemish artisans, in the first half of the 14th century, and the industry spread through the counties of Somerset, Gloucester, and Dorset. In the 15th century, however, the centre of woolen manufacture was shifted to Yorkshire, where Leeds, Wakefield, and Halifax became, and have since remained, important centres of this industry. Their development has been promoted by the proximity of the rich coal field. Broadcloth and other woolen goods are still produced extensively in the west of England, particularly in Gloucester, Bradford, and Trowbridge. The inventions above mentioned of course gave rise to the production of machinery, which has become one of the most important of English industries. Manchester, which had for several centuries been famous as an industrial centre, more especially for the production of wool and linen goods, in the 18th century, began to attain its present prominence as a cotton manufacturing centre. There, too, conditions are favorable on account of the rich coal field, and on account of the humidity of the atmosphere. The manufacture of silk was begun in Derby, where a silk mill was built in 1717, and this industry still has its main centre in Derbyshire, together with the counties of Staffordshire and Cheshire. The silk mills of Spitalfields, in London, were formerly, and for a long time, noted. The weaving of silk was carried on extensively at Bradford. The centres of the textile industries were also centres of the manufacture of machinery. Birmingham and Sheffield have for many years been famous for their cutlery and other metal wares. Leeds, Barrow, Middlesbrough, and other towns are important centres of the iron and steel trade. N. Staffordshire has long been known for the manufacture of earthen ware, especially in the districts known as the Potteries, where Wedgwood did much to promote the industry in the 18th century. Hanley is a great town for the production of all kinds of earthenware. In the census of 1891 there is a comparative table showing the numbers of workmen engaged in the various industries. In respect to the numbers of operatives, the textile industries were by far the most important. In that year there were 1,128,589 employed in England and Wales, over 208,000 in Scotland, and about 130,000 in Ireland. Next in importance, in England and Wales, was the manufacture of machines, which employed, in 1891, 210,974 workmen. In Scotland there were 43,691 employed in this class of industries in that year. The next were steel and iron manufactures, with 202,406 in England and Wales, and 39,361 in Scotland. In blast furnaces, etc., there were employed, in England and Wales 140,024, in Scotland 22,510, and in Ireland 13,798 workmen. In 1894 the ore smelted amounted to 18,629,337 tons, and the pig-iron amounted to 7,703,459 tons. Commerce.-The United Kingdom is well adapted by its situation for commerce and trade. Among its many natural advantages may be mentioned the irregular and indented coast line, furnishing admirable harbors; the water communication with all parts of the world; the number of navigable rivers, affording facilities for internal communication; and the abundant supplies of coal and iron ores near the coast. Added to these natural advantages are the complete network of railways and numerous canals. Since the repeal of the corn laws, the policy of the country in respect to foreign countries has been one of free trade. The only articles on which import duties are levied, were coffee, chicory, cocoa, dried fruits, spirits, tea, tobacco, and wine, of which spirits, tea, tobacco, and wine, yield the bulk of revenue from the customs. In 1895 the value of articles subject to duties was only £28,545,709, while the imports admitted free of duty amounted to £388,143,949. Thus the articles admitted free of duty formed about 93.2% of the total imports. The commerce of Great Britain ranks with its industries, and, like them, is of many centuries' standing. England became a rival of the Dutch in the latter part of the 17th century, and began the establishment of her great colonial empire. The formation of the East India Company greatly extended her commercial interests, but the most rapid progress was made after the year 1770. With colonies in all parts of the world, great opportunities were offered to British capital for investment, and the enterprise of the capitalist has not been limited to the possessions of the British government. In the 19th century the extent of British financial interests in foreign countries

has been remarkable. The following table, taken from the Statesman's Year-book for 1897, shows the condition of the foreign trade from 1887 to 1896, inclusive.

Statistics for 1895 show that of the total trade of Great Britain and Ireland, 90.9% falls to England and Wales, 7.8% to Scotland, and 1.3% to Ireland. Commercial statistics for the years 1894 and 1895 show that Great Britain's trade with foreign countries was respectively £314,432,644 and £321,159,448 imports; and £143,184,048 and £155,888,492 exports. The total trade of the United Kingdom with its foreign possessions, in 1895, was £95,530,210 imports and £70,001,524 exports. Of this Australasia furnished the largest share of the imports and India received the largest share of the exports. The leading countries with which Great Britain trades are the United States, France, Germany, Holland, Belgium, Russia and Spain. Of these, in 1895, the United States stood first in the amount of exports which she sent to Great Britain; France, Holland and Germany stood next. The United States also stood first in respect to the amount of imports received from Great Britain, Germany was second, and France third. The principal articles of import are, in the order of their importance, grain and flour, raw cotton, wool, sheep, lambs, meat, sugar, butter, timber, flax, hemp, jute, tea, etc. The principal articles of export are woolen and worsted goods, iron and steel wares, linen and jute manufactures, machinery, coal, etc. It is estimated that over of the cotton comes from the United States, and over of the wool from the Australasian colonies. Wheat and wheat flour are chiefly supplied by the United States (which furnishes about ), Russia, India, British North America, Argentine Republic, Chile, and Australasia. In 1896, out of a total of 64,288,540 cwt. of wheat, imported from foreign countries, 30,694,800 cwt. came from the United States.

Shipping-Since the beginning of the 19th century, the shipping interests of Great Britain have vastly increased. Between 1802 and 1830, a period of 28 years, the total tonnage increased about 37%. Yet the tonnage at each of these dates seems insignificant, compared to the present figures, being in 1830 only 2,860,515. Between 1830 and 1850 the total tonnage was increased by 159%. Within the next 20 years there was another increase of 150%, and from 1870 to 1892 there was an increase of 106%. At all of these periods the British shipping had the larger share of the total tonnage. In he last period mentioned, it was 71.5%. In 1895, 384,330 vessels entered the ports of the United Kingdom, with a tonnage of 94,306,394, and in the same years 350,006, with a tonnage of 87,801,274 cleared.

Railroads, Post-Offices, and Telegraphs.-In 1850 there were 6621 miles of railroads open; on Jan. 1, 1896, England and Wales had 14,651 miles, Scotland 3350, and Ireland 8173, a total of 21,174. On June 30, 1895, there were in the United Kingdom 982 miles of street and road tramways opened. The number of post-offices in the United Kingdom, April 1, 1896, was 20,398, besides 27,622 road and pillar letter-boxes. The Post Office department employed 140,806 persons. During the year ending Mar. 31, 1896, the letters delivered in the United Kingdom numbered 1,834,000,000; and the post-cards, packets, newspapers, etc., 1,196,300,000. The money orders issued numbered 10,900,963, and their amount was £29,726,817; the postal orders numbered 64,076,377, aggregate value £23,896,594. On April 1, 1896, there were 37,329 miles of telegraph line, and 230,682 miles of wire.

Money and Credit.-In 1895 the value of money coined at the Royal Mint was as follows: Gold, £3,810,636; silver, £1,196,168; bronze, £40,995; gold coin was imported to the amount of £8,933,061 and exported to the amount of £12,778,259. The imports and exports of silver coin were respectively £168,546 and £408,231. The Bank of England, the Bank of Scotland, and the Bank of Ireland have royal charters and the first and last lend money to the government. The Bank of England has been described as the bank of banks, as well as of the government, all other banks keeping their bullion reserves there.

Finance.--The national revenue is derived mainly from taxation, which falls under the following 7 heads- customs duties, the excise, estate etc. duties, stamps, land tax, house duty, income and property tax. Of these the most productive, for the year ending Mar. 31st, 1896, was the excise, from which the net receipts were £26,826,754. In the first half of the 19th century the excise duties were very numerous. Hardly a necessary of life escaped taxation, and of course almost all luxuries were included. The remarkable decrease in the number of articles subject to excise duties appears from the fact that while, in 1840, there were 1046 articles taxed, in 1875 there were only 53, and in 1893 the excise was limited chiefly to spirits, beer, license duties, and railways. Of

these the most productive source was spirits, from which nearly of this class of revenue was raised. From beer about of the revenue derived from excise was raised. Next in importance to the excise duties are the customs, from which the net receipts, in 1896, were £20,762,413. More than half of this class of revenue was raised from tobacco. Among the other articles taxed were tea, rum, brandy, other spirits. wine, currants, coffee and raisins. From the income and property tax, nearly £16,000,000 were raised in 1896. The rate of taxation in that year was 8d. to the pound. In regard to estate duties, etc., it may be noted that the greater part of this class of revenue is derived from the estate duty proper. Other duties falling under this head are the temporary estate duty, the probate duty, and the legacy, succession and corporation duties. Other sources of income are the post-office, telegraph service, crown lands, interest on Suez canal shares, fee stamps, etc. The chief branches of expenditure are the national debt and other consolidated fund services, the navy, the army, and civil services. The civil services include, among the most important classes of expenditure, education, science, and art; the administration of law and justice; the salaries of officers in the civil departments; and public works and buildings. Of these the most expensive class was that first mentioned, namely, education, science and art, under which head the budget estimate for 1895-7 called for £10,489,249.

The national debt at the revolution of 1688 was £664,263; at the commencement of the American revolution, 1775, £126,842,811, and at the end, 1784, 4243,063,145. At the peace of Paris, 1815, it was £861,039,049; in 1857 it was, £808,108,722; in 1880, £774,044,235, and in 1896, £648,474,143, of which £589,146,878 was funded. The whole of the debt was about £42,000,000 less than the total value of imports and exports for 1895.

Wealth. In 1600 the population of England was 4,500,000, the value of property was £100,000,000, and of property per capita, £22. In 1800 the population of Great Britain was 11,000,000, the value of property, £1,750,000,000, and of property per capita, £160. In 1812 the population of the United Kingdom was 17,000,000, the value of property $2,700,000,000, and of property per capita, £160; while the corresponding figures for 1885 were 37,000,000, £10,000,000,000, and £270. Of the whole amount in 1855, £1,091,000,000 represented lands, £1,927,000,000 houses, and £932,000,000 railways. Army and Navy.-See BRITISH ARMY; BRITISH NAVY; NAVIES, MODERN. Form of Government.-The government of Great Britain is of the kind known as a "constitutional monarchy," in which the sovereign accepts of his dignity under an express agreement to abide by certain prescribed conditions. See CORONATION OATH. The sovereignty is hereditary in the family of Brunswick, now on the throne, and in the person of either a male or a female. The sovereign (king or queen) is the directing power in the executive of government; while the legislative function is exercised by parliament. The queen receives £385,000 ($1,925,000) per annum for ordinary expenses.

Further information regarding the British constitution and laws will be found under the heads PARLIAMENT; MINISTRY; COMMON LAW; JUDGE, etc.

Money, Weights, and Measures.-See POUND; MINT; WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. Religion.-The United Kingdom is a Protestant state, but all religions-not offensive to public or private morals-may be professed, and their different forms of worship practiced, without interference from any quarter whatever. There are two churches established" by special acts of the legislature. In England the established church is episcopal in its government. In Scotland, on the other hand, the established church is presbyterian. See SCOTLAND, CHURCH OF.

Religious statistics were omitted from the census returns of 1861 and 1871, the collecting of such data having given rise to much controversy. According to law every Englishman is a member of the established church; hence, all persons not avowedly members of some dissenting denomination, are classed in the census returns as adherents of the Church of England, a proceeding considered arbitrary and misleading by other religious bodies, and evoking frequent protests. There were in 1891, altogether, 280 religious denominations in Great Britain. The term "chapel," frequently applied to dissenting houses of worship, as distinguished from those of the state church, has a different signification from that used in the United States, many of these structures being large and very costly. In England and Wales there are two archbishops and 33 bishops; subordinate ecclesiastical officers are canons, deans, archdeacons, rectors, vicars, curates, and assistant curates. In 1891 the number of clergy of all grades actively officiating in churches was 24,232. The Episcopal Church in Scotland had 7 bishops, 268 churches and missions, 266 clergy, and about 80,000 worshipers. The Established Church of Scotland, dating from the year 1560, is Presbyterian, with 84 presbyteries, and 16 synods, and with a general assembly of over 700 members, which meets annually and holds a session of 10 days. In 1896 the number of parishes was 1363, and of churches, chapels, and stations, 1750. In 1895 the number of members or communicants in the Established Church of Scotland was 626,771. There are also certain important bodies of Presbyterians who are not members of the Established Church. The most important of these bodies is the Free Church of Scotland, formed after the so-called disruption in 1843, and having, in 1895, 283,659 members. The other great Presbyterian body is the United Presbyterian Church, which was formed from members who had seceded from the Established Church of Scotland, and had a membership, in 1895, of 191,881. In Ireland the dominant religion is Roman Catholicism. The Roman Catholic Church of Ireland is under the government of 4 archbishops and 33 bishops. The census of 1891 returned as the number of the Roman Catholic population 3,547,307, which was a decrease of 10.4% since 1881. Formerly the Established Church of Ireland was the Protestant Episcopal, which was in union with the Church of England from