GRA TIAN, the collector of the well-known body of canon law which is commonly cited under the title of decretum Gratiani. It is singular, however, that although few authorities have been so frequently cited, or have obtained so wide and permanent acceptance as this celebrated collection, hardly anything is known of the collector's own personal history. The sum of our knowledge regarding him is, that he was a native of Chiusa in Tuscany, and that he became, in later life, a Benedictine monk of the monastery of St. Felix in Bologna. The date commonly assigned to Gratian's collection is 1141 or 1151; its title, however, decretum, or concordia discordantium canon, is believed to be of later origin. How far the collection is the work of Gratian himself, or how far he was indebted for his materials, and even for their arrangement, to the labors of earlier collectors, it is difficult to determine. The work consists not only of the decrees of councils and popes down to Innocent II. (including the spurious ISIDORIAN DECRE TALS, q.v.), but also of passages from the Scripture, from the fathers, and even from the Roman law. It is divided into three parts. The first regards the hierarchical constitution of the church, and chiefly relates to doctrinal and moral subjects. It is divided into "distinctions.' The second treats of external jurisdiction, under the head of "causes" and "questions." The third regards the inner life of the church-the liturgy and the sacraments. From what has been already said regarding his adoption of the Isidorian decretals, it will be inferred that in point of criticism Gratian's authority is of little value, and, in general, it may be added that no authority is given to any document beyond what it intrinsically possesses, from the fact of its being placed in Gratian's collection. For the other collectors of the canon law, see CANON LAW. The date of Gratian's death is unknown.

GRATIA NUS, Augustus, eldest son of Valentinian I., by his first wife Severa, was born at Sirmium in Pannonia, on April 19, 359 A.D. While he was still nobilissimus puer (or heir-apparent), he was created consul, and in 367 was elevated by his father to the rank of Augustus at Ambiani, or Amiens, in Gaul. In the following year he accompanied his father in his expedition against the Alemanni, in order that he might be accustomed to warfare. On the death of Valentinian the troops elevated Gratianus to the throne, giving him at the same time as a colleague his half-brother Valentinian II. Gaul, Spain, and Britain fell to Gratianus's share; and as his brother was only four years old, Gratianus is supposed by many authorities to have been the monarch de facto of the rest of the western empire, fixing his residence at Treviri (now Treves). During the first part of his reign, a fierce warfare was carried on against the tribes who possessed the Danubian provinces and Illyricum; and he was on the point of marching into Thrace, to assist his uncle Valens against the Goths, when he was suddenly called upon to defend his dominions against the Lentienses, a tribe of the Alemanni. After the invaders had been defeated Gratianus advanced towards the eastern empire, but while on the way, he learned that his uncle Valens had been defeated and killed by the Goths near Adrianople (Aug., 378). The sovereignty of the eastern empire then devolved upon Gratianus, but feeling his inadequacy to the task of ruling the whole empire, he recalled Theodosius (q.v.) from Spain, and appointed him his colleague on Jan. 19, 379. Gratianus possessed some admirable virtues: he was pious, chaste, and temperate; his understanding was well cultivated, although not strong, and his eloquence attractive. But his character was too yielding and pliant, and he was consequently often led to the commission of gross acts of cruelty and tyranny, utterly foreign to his nature. His persecution of the pagans, and afterwards of heretic Christians, made him a great favorite with orthodox ecclesiastics, but rather alienated the affections of his subjects generally, while his fondness for frivolous amusements, and unworthy associates, excited the contempt of the army, so that when Maximus was proclaimed emperor by the legions in Britain, crowds of the disaffected flocked to his standard. Gratianus was defeated by him near Paris, and afterwards fled to Lyons, where he was overtaken and killed by Andragathius, whom Maximus had sent in pursuit of him, on Aug. 25, 383.

GRATIANUS, FRANCISCUS, a monk of Bologna of the 12th century. He is known from a collection of decretals or church canons bearing his name. He is charged with extending the power of the papacy by teaching that the pope himself was not subject to the canons.

GRATI’OLA, a genus of plants of the natural order scrophularineæ, having a 5-partite calyx, the upper lip of the corolla bifid, the lower trifid, only two stamens fertile, and the anthers pendulous. G. officinalis, sometimes called HEDGE HYSSOP, is found in meadows and on the margins of ponds and river-banks in most parts of Europe, but not in Britain. It has sessile lanceolate serrulated leaves, and axillary solitary flowers. It is extremely bitter, acts violently as a purgative, diuretic, and emetic: and in overdoses is an acrid poison. It is administered in cases of worms, jaundice, dropsy, scrofula, mania, and venereal diseases; but requires to be used with caution. It is said to render some of the Swiss meadows useless as pastures. It was formerly so highly esteemed as a medicine, that the name of Gratia Dei (Grace of God) was given to it, and for the same reason it is known in France as herbe au pauvre homme (poor man's herb). It is said to be the basis of the famous gout medicine called eau medicinale.-G. peruviana, a

Gratuitous.

South American species, has somewhat similar properties. These properties are supposed to depend upon a bitter resinous principle called gratioline.

GRATIOT, a co. in central Michigan, intersected by Prairie river, and crossed by the Ann Arbor and other railroads; 560 sq. m.; pop. '90, 28,668. It has an undulating surface and much is yet forest land. The soil is fertile. Lumber, hay, wheat, corn, and oats are the principal products. Co. seat, Ithaca.

GRATIOT, CHARLES, 1788-1855, born Mo.; graduated at West Point in 1806, entering the corps of engineers, and was made capt. in 1808. He was chief of engineers under Gen. Harrison in 1813-14, and took part in the defense of fort Meigs, April-May, 1813, and the attack on fort Mackinac, Aug. 4, 1814. He was made maj. in 1815, lieut. col. in 1819, col. and chief of engineers in 1828, and the same year brig.gen. by brevet. He was inspector of the academy at West Point, 1828-38. Dec. 6. 1838, he was dismissed from the service.

66

GRATRY, AUGUSTE JOSEPH ALPHONSE, Abbe. 1805-72; b. France. He was chaplain of a normal school and director of a college in Paris. With others he founded the Oratory of the Immaculate Conception," a society of priests, devoted particularly to the instruction of the youth of the city. In 1861 he became vicar-general of Orleans, and two years later professor of moral theology in the Sorbonne. About this time he published a Course of Philosophy. He afterwards vehemently opposed Renan and the rationalists generally. In 1867 he was made a member of the academy. He favored Pere Hyacinthe for a time, and was censured by his superiors.

GRATTAN, The Right Honorable HENRY, was b. in Dublin July 3, 1746. His father was recorder and M.P. for that city until his death in 1766. The year after that event, having completed his university studies with distinction at Trinity college, Dublin, Grattan entered as a student of law at the Middle Temple, London, where, however, he neglected the pages of Blackstone, to listen to the living oratory of parliament, and in particular of lord Chatham. In 1772 he was called to the Irish bar, and in 1775 was returned to the Irish parliament as representative for the borough of Charlemont, for which he sat until 1790, when he was elected as one of the representatives of the city of Dublin, to such an extent had his patriotism and eloquence recommended him to the Irish people. Mainly to him was owing, among other things, the partial abolition of the heavy restrictions on Irish commerce. But his popularity cbbed as it had flowed (and oftener than once) in the hearts and huzzas of his impulsive and therefore inconstant countrymen. In 1797 he declined to come forward for Dublin, and went into temporary but undeserved eclipse. In 1800 he was returned for the borough of Wicklow, to oppose the union, and that was to fight for the people's idea of the constitution. But the union was effected in spite of him, and in 1805 he was returned to the imperial parliament for the borough of Malton, in Yorkshire. Next year, he was induced to stand for Dublin, and was re-elected. He sat for it in successive parliaments till his death, which happened on June 4, 1820, in London, to which he had gone when in a weak state of health, contrary to the advice of his physicians, to advocate, as he had been wont, the cause of Catholic emancipation.

Grattan's public and private character was unimpeachable. For the vacillations of his popularity in Ireland, his countrymen had reason to be ashamed, and it is certain that he now holds a proper and exalted place in the esteem of the people, for whom he labored with such sincerity, integrity and genius. The history of his life is in great measure the history of the Irish constitution, and entirely the history of the parliament of Ireland. His Life and Times was published by his son.

As an orator, he stands in the first rank. His style is full of point, rapidity, antithesis, and poetic suggestiveness. His eulogy on Chatham, and his invective against Bonaparte, are not surpassed in British eloquence. Byron declares him to be an

orator

With all that Demosthenes wanted, endowed,
And his rival or master, in all he possessed.

His speeches were published by his son and biographer. A statue of Grattan, on College Green, Dublin, was unveiled in 1876.

GRATTIUS, Faliscus, Roman poet, contemporary of Vergil, and author of a poem upon the chase entitled Cynegetica. Of the poem 541 hexameters have come down through one MS., discovered in France in the beginning of the 16th century, and in 1654 translated into English verse by Christopher Wase. See Bähren's Poetae Latini Minores vol. 1, pp. 31-53.

GRATUITOUS DEED, in the law of Scotland, means a deed granted without any value received. If it is made in favor of a third party, in order to defeat creditors, it is null and void, by stat. 1621 c. 18. There is this peculiarity, also, that when a person is too generous, and contracts voluntarily to give away property at a future period, if he become destitute in the meantime, the court will, at least where the deed was in favor of children or grandchildren, retain sufficient for his own subsistence. This is in imitation of the Roman law as to beneficium competentiæ, but the Roman law went further. Such a provision is wholly unknown in England. In England gratuitous deeds are usually styled gifts (q.v.) or voluntary conveyances (q.v.), according to circumstances.

Gravitation.

GRÄTZ, or GRAZ, the capital of the crown-land of Styria, in Austria, is a picturesque old t., built on both sides of the Mur, and encircled by fine gardens and pleasure-grounds. It is 140 m. s.s.w. of Vienna, by the Vienna and Trieste railway. The population amounted (1890) to 112,069. The inner town, which is connected with the suburb on the western side of the river by several bridges, lies around the base of a hill called the Schlossberg, and retaining traces of fortifications built in the 15th century and destroyed by the French in 1809. The inner town is noteworthy from the number of old buildings which it contains, as the cathedral of St. Agidi, built in 1462; the ancient castle of the Styrian dukes, which possesses many curious relics of antiquity; the Landhaus, where the nobles of the duchy held their meetings; the university, founded in 1586, with its library containing over 130,000 volumes; its museum, etc., the arsenal, and various palaces belonging to the Styrian nobility. Grätz is well provided with gymnasia and other public educational establishments for the laity, and seminaries for the clergy. As the seat of government for the circle, Grätz has special courts of law and administration, and is a place of considerable importance. It has important manufactures of steel and iron wares, cotton, linen, and woolen fabrics, leather, paper, saltpeter, etc. From its position on the direct line of railway communication between Vienna and Trieste, it is favorably situated as an intermediary station for the trade of the Austrian capital and the Adriatic provinces. Grätz is the residence of a prince-bishop, and has, besides a Protestant church and a synagogue, 23 Catholic churches, some of them very ancient. The country round about Grätz is singularly beautiful and picturesque.

GRAU DENZ, an old t. and important fortress of Prussia, in the province of west Prussia, stands on the right bank of the Vistula, 60 m. in direct line s. of Dantzic. A railway bridge here crosses the river. Graudenz has numerous seminaries and educational establishments. It carries on a trade in grain, wool, and cattle, and manufactures machinery, cigars, tobacco, etc. The town is fortified by a wall; and about a m. n. of it, on a hill, and in a position that commands the course of the Vistula, is the bomb-proof fortress of Graudenz. Pop. '90, 20,385, including the garrison.

GRAU'WACKE. See GREYWACKE.

GRAVE CREEK. See MOUNDSVILLE.

GRAVEL, the name given to aggregations of water-worn and rounded fragments of rocks, varying in size from a pea to a hen's egg. When the fragments are smaller, the deposit is sand; when larger, it is called shingle. Beds of gravel occur in formations of every age. While the materials have been a long time in being prepared, and have traveled perhaps a great distance from the mother-rock, gravel deposits have been formed speedily and by the action of a strong current of water. They form very irregular and limited deposits, occurring generally as banks or hummocks in strata of sand. Unless in the most recent deposits, they almost always form a hard rock called conglomerate or puddingstone, the pebbles being compacted together by some infiltered current, which is most frequently iron, lime, or silex. Even so recent as the glacial period, gravels are sometimes formed into a compact concrete, though these and later deposits are generally loose. Mr. Prestwich has divided the pleistocene gravels into "High Level" and "Low Level Gravels." The high level gravels are the more ancient; they have been deposited subsequently to the formation of the present valleys, but apparently at a time when there was much more water in the valleys than there is now. low level gravels have been produced by the present rivers.

GRAVEL. See CALCULUS.

The

GRAVELINES, a small fortified t. and seaport of France, in the department of Nord, is situated in a marshy locality at the mouth of the Aa, 12 m. s.w. of Dunkerque. The town is of especial importance in an historical point of view. It was founded about 1160. Here the count d'Egmont obtained a victory over the French army commanded by the Maréchal de Thermes in 1558-a victory which compelled the French to accept the severe conditions of the peace of Cateau-Cambrésis. Ten years later it was taken by Louis XIV., who had it fortified by Vauban. The inhabitants are employed chiefly in the herring and cod fisheries, in shipbuilding, the manufacture of sugar, beer, etc., and the trade in liquors, timber, salt-fish, etc. Pop. '91, 5952.

GRAVELOTTE, BATTLE OF, was fought Aug. 18, 1870, in the Franco-German war, near the village of Gravelotte in Alsace-Lorraine. The first and second German armies under Gen. Steinmetz and Prince Frederick Charles with King William as commanderin-chief, gained a great victory over the French forces under Marshal Bazaine. This battle decided the fate of Metz and was probably the bloodiest of the whole war. The Germans, numbering 211,000, lost 904 officers and 19,658 men; the French, numbering 140,000, lost 609 officers and 11,605 men.

GRAVEL WALLS, made of a conglomeration of cement or lime, and pebbles and small stones or slag. They are built in casings and the planks may be taken away after the mass has properly hardened. Apertures for doors and windows should be made while the wall is in process of building.

Gravitation.

GRAVES, a co. in w. Kentucky on Clark's river, traversed by the Illinois Central railroad; 550 sq. m.; pop. '90, 28,534, includ. colored. The region is level and the soil productive; chief productions, wheat, corn, tobacco, cotton, and butter. Co. seat, Mayfield.

GRAVE ROBBING is an offense by statute in most of the states. In N. Y. the unlawful removal of a dead body from a vault or grave is punishable by 5 years' imprisonment. Severe penalties are also inflicted upon those who receive stolen bodies, or who open graves with intent to remove a dead body, or to steal or remove the coffin or anything attached thereto.

GRAVESEND, a market-town, municipal borough, and river-port of England, in the co. of Kent, is situated on the right bank of the Thames, 33 m. w.n.w. of Canterbury, and 24 m. e.s.e. of London by the North Kent Railway. It occupies a somewhat commanding position on the first rising ground after entering the river. It is defended by Fort Tilbury on the Essex side and three forts on the coast of Kent, and consists of the old town, with narrow, inconvenient streets, and of the new town, w. of the older portion, with handsome streets, squares, and terraces. Gravesend is not famous for its architecture. In the vicinity are extensive market-gardens, great part of the produce of which is sent to London. Many of the inhabitants are employed in fishing. Gravesend forms the limit of the port of London. Here pilots and custom-house officers are taken on board of vessels going up the river. For centuries the prosperity of the town has depended on its connection with the metropolis. The salubrious air and beautiful scenery at Gravesend render it a favorite watering-place with Londoners. It carries on some shipbuilding and a considerable trade in supplying ships' stores. Pop. of municipal borough, '81, 23,375; '91, 23,876.

Gravesend was originally a hythe, or landing-place, and is mentioned as such in Domesday. Around this landing-place a town grew up soon after the conquest. Here the fleets of the early voyagers, as that of Sebastian Cabot in 1553, and of Martin Frobisher in 1576, used to assemble; and here the lord mayor, aldermen, and city companies were wont to receive all strangers of eminence, and to conduct them up the river in state, forming processions, which, says the historian Froude, were spectacles scarcely rivaled in gorgeousness by the world-famous weddings of the Adriatic.”

GRAVE STONES. The right to grant or refuse permission to erect grave stones, tombs, or monuments in the church or church-yard, in England, is vested in the ordi nary, who is generally the bishop. In Scotland, a similar power is vested in the heritors, i.e., the proprietors of the lands in the parish.

GRAVIER, JACQUES, d. 1708; a French missionary in Canada and the wilds of Illinois in the latter part of the 17th century. He continued the work of Marquette among the Indians for several years, but was constantly opposed by the medicine men who found their craft in danger. At length they gave him a wound from which he never recovered. During his labors he went down the Mississippi twice to see Iberville, the Louisiana pioneer. He sailed for Europe in 1706, and returned in 1708. He wrote three works on the Indian missions and Louisiana affairs, and compiled a grammar of the Illinois tongue.

GRAVI NA, a commercial and industrious episcopal t. in the s. of Italy, in the province of Bari, is situated on a hill above the left bank of a stream of the same name, 37 m. s.w. of the town of Bari. It contained (1881) 15,612 inhabitants, and occupies the site of ancient Blera, one of the stations on the Via Appia, which passed at Poggio Orsino, about a mile from the town. In 995 it sustained a memorable siege against the Saracens. It was a favorite hunting-place of the emperor Frederick II. who built the castle which overhangs the town and commands a good view of the surrounding, country. The neighborhood possesses rich pastures, and raises excellent horses and cattle. GRAVITA, an Italian term used in music, signifying that it is to be performed with an earnest and dignified expression, while the movement progresses in a slow, marked, and solemn time.

GRAVITATION-GRAVITY. All bodies, when raised into the air, and left unsupported, fall to the earth in lines perpendicular to it. The force which causes them to do so is termed gravity, and, universal experience shows, acts towards the earth's center; more strictly, it acts perpendicularly to the surface of still water. But if a body, as a stone, be projected obliquely into the air, it is made to describe a curved path, having a highest point, vertex, or apogee; and when it meets the earth in its descent, its direction is not towards the center, but inclined to it at the angle of projection. See PROJECTILES. Observing this, and that the body, if not interrupted by the earth's surface, would continue to move in a curve, with its tangent always away from the center, it is easy to imagine that if not interrupted, it might circulate round the center as the moon does round the earth. Next, knowing that the force of gravity is exerted at all accessible heights above the earth, the question arises-May it not be exerted as far off as the moon? which we know is influenced by some force which continually deflects her from the tangent to her orbit, and makes her circulate round the earth. See CENTRAL FORCES. Observing now the time of revolution of the moon, and calculating its centrifugal force, which we know must equal the centripetal force, we put the question: Is this force the same as gravity? The answer is, that it is a force

Gray.

3,600 times less energetic. If, then, gravity be the force which really holds the moon to her path, it must be explained why it acts upon her so much more feebly than it would, were she a body on the earth's surface. The explanation is given at once if we suppose gravity to be a force whose energy diminishes with increase of distance, and is inversely as the squares of the distances at which it is exerted; for the distance of the moon from the earth's center is just about 60 times that of the earth's surface from its center, and 3,600 : 1 :: 602 1. We infer that it does so from the fact, that there is nothing inadmissible in such a diminution of energy with increase of distance that, on the contrary, there are many analogies for it, as in the emanations of light and heat; and in the argument drawn from the necessity of otherwise supposing some other force than gravity to be employed in deflecting the moon, and the force of gravity to cease at some unknown level. On these views, and a generalization to be afterwards mentioned, Newton is understood to have at first rested his law of universal gravitation: "Every particle of matter in the universe attracts every other particle with a force directly proportioned to the mass of the attracting particle, and inversely to the square of the distance between them "-a law, the truth of which, since it was first broached, has been put beyond all question by the most complete body of predictions, fulfilled to the letter, that can be cited in support of any law of nature.

Before, however, the argument on the extension of terrestrial gravity to the sphere of the moon could have become pregnant with so great a result, much investigation had to take place in other fields; and, in fact, Newton had, previously to conceiving the law, explained the three great Keplerian laws of order obtaining in the solar system by reference to an attractive force residing in the sun. These laws are-1. That the planets revolve round the sun in ellipses, having the sun for a common focus: 2. That every planet moves in such a way that the line drawn from it to the sun sweeps over equal areas in equal times: 3. That the squares of the times occupied by the several planets in their revolutions in their elliptic orbits, are proportional to the cubes of their mean distances from their common focus, the sun. From the law of equal areas, Newton inferred that every planet is retained in its orbit by a force of attraction directed towards the center of the sun; from the orbits being elliptical, he inferred that in each case this force varies in intensity according to the inverse square of the body's distance from the sun; while from the third law he inferred the homogeneity of the central force throughout the solar system. It was then, after being familiar with the notion of terrestrial gravity, and its action, through the researches of Galileo, Huyghens, and Hooke, and with the notion of a central force acting inversely as the square of the distance of its object, through his explanations of the laws of Kepler, that he put to himself the question: Is not the force with which the moon gravitates to the earth the same with gravity?— the force which causes a stone to fall on its surface. A question answered affirmatively on the supposition of gravity, like the sun's attraction, being a force diminishing with increase of distance, and according to the same law. The result was to bring the whole solar system, the planets and the sun, and satellites and their planets-the satellites being observed to obey the same laws of order with reference to their primaries that the latter obeyed in reference to the sun-under the law of gravitation. And the imagi nation lifted up by the grandeur of the conception, would refuse to limit the operation of that law to our own system, were there no facts to entitle us to extend it beyond. The phenomena of double stars, however, of themselves justify the extension and the statement of the law as we have given it in universal terms. It may be observed, in conclusion, that the Keplerian laws, which may be said to have been the basis of Newton's researches, are, owing to perturbations caused by the mutual action of the planets, etc., only approximately correct; and that these perturbations afford, when examined, a further proof of the truth and universality of the law of gravitation.

For a notice of speculations as to the nature of the law of gravitation, see FORCE: see also FALLING BODIES, PROJECTILES, etc.

GRAVITY, SPECIFIC. See SPECIFIC GRAVITY.

GRAY, a co., in s. w. Kansas; on the Arkansas river; organized 1887 from parts of Finney, Ford, and Hodgeman; 864 sq. m., pop. '90, 2415. Co. seat, Cimarron.

GRAY, a co. in n.w. Texas; formed, 1876; 900 sq. m.; crossed by North Fork of Red river. Pop. '90, 203.

GRAY, a small t. of France, in the department of Haute-Saône, is situated on the slope of a hill overlooking a beautiful meadow, on the left bank of the Saône, 26 m. w.n.w. of the Besançon. It is commanded by the remains of an ancient castle, the residence in former times of the dukes of Burgundy, and has a pleasing appearance from a distance, although its streets are crooked, narrow, and steep. Gray is an important entrepôt for goods from the north-eastern districts of France. Pop. '91, 6739.

GRAY, ASA, an eminent American botanist, b. at Paris, Oneida co., N. Y., Nov. 18, 1810. He took his degree of M.D. in 1831, but soon relinquishing the practice of medi cine, he devoted himself, under Prof. Torrey, to his favorite study of botany. In 1834 he received the appointment of botanist of the United States' exploring expedition; but as a long delay took place before it was ready to sail, he resigned his post in 1837. He was afterwards appointed prof. of botany in the university of Michigan; but before he had entered npon the duties of that office he was elected, in 1842, Fisher prof. of natural