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ADJUNCT-INFINITIVE.

The infinitive as adjunct may have connected with it the idea of―

1. At; as, "We sigh to see such ruin" (at seeing); "I rejoice to hear it" (at hearing); "Just as grieved appears [at] to want the strength of bulls."

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2. In; as, “Boys delight to play" (in playing); "He is prompt to perform his duty" (in performing); "They rejoice [in] to do evil;" · Be thou the first [in] to befriend true merit;" "He is wiser than [he would be wise] to do this" (in doing); "Brooks exults [in] to trust and blushes [at] to be paid."

3. Of; as, “He was desirous to learn" (of learning); "Worthy to be promoted" (of being promoted); "I am ashamed [of] to have encouraged such a villain;" "He was afraid [of] to see her;" "The generous pleasure [of] to be charmed with wit."-Pope.

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4. On; as, "They tremble to hear these murmurs (on hearing); "She smiled to see the doughty hero slain" (on seeing); "Resolved [on] to win the prize;" "Determined [on] to resist.”

5. With; as, "Still pleased to teach (with teaching), and yet not proud to know (of knowing), nor yet too vain [for] to mend."-Pope. "She should have been content [with] to manage well that mighty government."-Dryden.

6. From; as, "Yet oft a sigh prevails and sorrows fall
To see (from seeing) the sum of human bliss so small;
And oft I wish amidst the scene to find

Some spot to real happiness consigned,

Where my worn soul, each wandering hope at rest,

May gather bliss [from] to see my fellows blest."-Goldsmith. 7. For; as, “They serve [for] to fill a room;" "She stoops [for] to conquer;" "He has come in order [for] to relieve you;" "I sigh [for] to behold the scenes of my youth;" "He sent the servant [for] to bring the letters;" "There is a time [for] to laugh;" "He is too proud [for] to labor;" "I have a house [for] to sell;" "This house is [for] to

by the infinitive. The infinitive rather completes the idea begun to be expressed by the verb of seeing, for instance, and then the person or thing seen is made the object of the complex expression (see "factitive objective," Remark 11, p. 193). "I saw "+"fall""I saw-fall." What did I see-fall? The stone. Compare "Let me go" and "Dismiss me," "He let fly a stone" and "He threw a stone." "She made him go," and "She sent him."

Give an example in which the infinitive | as adjunct has connected with it the idea of at. Of in. Of of.

Give an example in which the infinitive as adjunct has connected with it the idea of on. Of from. Of for.

be sold;" "He has a great desire [for] to improve;" "The fruit is ripe enough [for] to use;" "Boys long [for] to play;"* "In the time [for] to come." †

"And shall I think the world was made for one,

And men are born for kings, as beasts for men,

Not for protection, but [for] to be devoured?”—Dryden.

VERB-INFINITIVE.

In the sense of a finite verb the infinitive may be used—

1. With a subject in the objective (see Rule I, Remark 1, p. 178); as, "I know him to be honest;" "Let him be punished;" "He orders the bridge to be broken down;" "He confessed himself to be in fault."

Remarks.-1. An infinitive, a gerund, or a noun-proposition may be the subject of an infinitive; as, "I believe it to be a difficult matter to understand him "= "I believe to understand him to be a difficult matter." (Or it, to understand. See p. 150, 3.) "We find walking to be more agreeable than sitting still." "That he was the author we believe to have been the opinion of all his friends”—“We believe that-he-was-the-author to have been the opinion of all his friends."

2. An infinitive with its subject may be introduced by for; as, "For us to do so would be improper." (See p. 151.) But for before an infinitive with its subject is not always merely introductory; as, "This passage is too difficult for me to translate." Here for is a preposition having as its object me to translate. (See Remark 5, p. 196.)

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2. Without a subject; as, "He was commanded to retreat" (that he should retreat); "He was advised to do it" (that he should do it); Philip swore to abstain from aggression" (that he would abstain); "I told him how to do it" (how he should or could do it); "He was so blind as not to see the danger" (that he did not see); "To confess the truth, I was in fault." (See Substitutes and Transformations," fourth paragraph, p. 166.)

Remarks.-1. For such expressions as "He is said to be honest" see Remark, p. 167. "Bills are requested to be paid in advance." Such expressions as this seem to push this construction about as far as it can in reason be expected to go.‡ 2. The to of the infinitive was originally a preposition. The Anglo-Saxons had two forms of the infinitive, one without to, as helpan, to help; the other with

"Than longen folke to gon on pilgrimages,

And palmeres for to seken strange strondes."-Chaucer. "The days that are yet for to come."-Psalter.

This construction is common in Greek and Latin and is called in Greek and Latin grammars "The personal construction for the impersonal," personal denoting the construction in which a noun is the subject (whether it denotes a person or not), and impersonal denoting the construction in which a proposition is the subject." Impersonal, "It is said that he is honest;" personal, "He is said to be honest." (See Hadley's Greek Grammar, p. 285; Harkness's Latin Grammar, p. 254.)

Give an example in which the infinitive | Without a subject.

in the sense of a finite verb is used What was to with the infinitive origiwith a subject. nally?

to, as to helpanne, to or for helping. This form is by some called the dative of the infinitive, by others the gerund. The two forms in the course of time became confounded, so that the form with to came to be used instead of the simple form, and the nature of the preposition was forgotten.*

But a word does not often change its meaning so completely as to lose all traces of its original meaning, and we find to still employed as a preposition in some constructions, particularly with words denoting tendency; as, "She is disposed to be merry "(to merriment); "They are obliged to be cautious" (bound to caution); "He is inclined to be sad" (to sadness): "I was forced to comply" (to compliance); "He aspired to rule;" "I am going to study;" "He was urged to declare war;" "These things are destined to perish;" "It came to pass;" "It will go near to be thought so;" "This will contribute to produce satisfaction."

3. The simple form of the infinitive (without to) is used after the so-called auxiliaries, can, may, must, might, could, would, should; as, "I can write," "I must write." The verbs after shall, will, and do, are simple forms of the infinitive; as, "I shall write," "I will write," "I do write."

4. The simple form is used after the verbs bid, dare (venture), feel, hear, let, make, need, see, behold, observe, perceive, and have (in the sense of procure, require, cause); as, "I bade him follow;" "I feel the pain abate;" "He made me go;" "You dare not meet him;" "We saw him fall;" "You heard him say so;" "I let him go;" "They would have us give up our rights;" "How delightful to behold a young man resist the allurements of vice!"

To is sometimes used with the infinitive after some of these verbs, particularly when they are emphatic; as, "The law of friendship bids me to conceal."-Shakespeare. "And bade me to dismiss you."-Id. "And dar'st thou then to beard the lion in his den ?"-Scott.

After the passive voice of such of these verbs as are transitive, except let, to is used; as, "He was heard to declare;" "He was seen to fall."

5. The simple form is used in such passages as the following: "They are not willing to do so much as listen to his story;" "They wish to do something more than eat and sleep;" "Better not be at all than not be noble ;" "She does nothing but sigh." The infinitive sigh is the subject of the verb be disguised in but (be out to sigh). (See Remark 14, p. 127.)

6. In the minds of some persons there seefas to be a great deal of confusion with respect to the subject of the infinitive. To determine whether an objective after a transitive verb is the object of that verb or the subject of the infinitive following, nothing is necessary but to change the infinitive to a finite verb and see whether the object becomes the subject of the finite verb. "He commanded the soldier to shoot"-" He commanded the soldier that he should shoot," soldier being the object of commanded, not the subject of to shoot. "He commanded the soldier to be shot""He commanded that the soldier should be shot." Here soldier is the subject of the infinitive to be shot. The command was not given to the soldier.

*To say, as some grammarians do, that to is a preposition in such expressions as "To play is pleasant" is as absurd as to say that all the Smiths of the present day are smiths.

Give some examples in which to retains
its original meaning.
In what mood is the verb after may, can,
might, could, would, or should?
After what other verbs is the simple
form (without to) used?

Which form is used after the passive of
these verbs?

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Explain "They are not willing to do so much as listen to his story."

Explain "She does nothing but sigh." How may we determine whether an objective following a transitive verb is the object of that verb or the subject of the infinitive following?

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"The infinitive is used. with a subject in the objective case; as, 'He told HIM TO GO.'"-Vickroy's English Grammar, p. 187. Here him is not the subject of the infinitive to go, but the object of the transitive verb told. The passage does not mean that he told that he should go. "The general sent him to reconnoitre. Him is construed as the subject of the infinitive to reconnoitre."- Vickroy's English Grammar, p. 190. Him is not the subject of to reconnoitre, but the object of sent. The general sent him [for] to reconnoitre, that he should reconnoitre.

Another writer gives as examples of infinitives with subjects the following: "I bade him follow;" "He commanded me to desist;" "The ant told the butterfly to go about his business." It is easy to see that the nouns following bade, commanded, and told are the objects of those verbs, not the subjects of the infinitives following.

7. The imperfect infinitive denotes something as imperfect, still going on or about to take place; the perfect infinitive something perfect or past at the time indicated. "The bulls of Colchis are reported to have brazen feet."-Swift. As the writer did not wish to represent the bulls of Colchis as still in existence, he should have used the perfect infinitive, to have had. "The Bailie had a great mind to have continued the dispute."-Scott. As the Bailie's "great mind" did not regard something that was past at the time, the imperfect should have been used-"The Bailie had a great mind to continue the dispute." "I was once inclined to have gone on shore."-Defoe. Was the going on shore to precede the inclination? The answer to this question shows to go to be the proper expression. "I expected to have found him at home." We do not expect (look forward to) what is past. "I was anxious to have done it." At the time of the anxiety was the doing past? If not, to have done is incorrect. Apply the principle to "Yesterday I hoped to have seen you." If we intend to refer the seeing to the time denoted by yesterday and the hoping to some previous time, we should say, "I had hoped to see you yesterday."

8. For "He ought to have gone" see pp. 104-5, 10. If the verb ought had a regular form for the past tense, this would be "He oughted to go." The perfect infinitive is employed to express what ought has no form to express. A similar construction is to be seen in "He should have gone," "He could have gone," "He might have gone," etc.

9. It is an error to omit to in any case except such as have been mentioned. Do not say, "Please excuse me," but "Please to excuse me."

10. Avoid the vulgarism of using and instead of to after try; as, "I will try and see him," instead of "I will try to see him."

11. It is a vulgarism to use the sign to without a verb; as, "They are always doing what they want to;" "I can go, if I wish to;" instead of "They are always doing what they want to do," "I can go, if I wish," or "if I wish to go," or "if I wish to do so."

12. The infinitive and the gerund being so nearly allied (see p. 68), in some constructions either the infinitive or the gerund may be used; as, "To play is pleasant," or "Playing is pleasant;" "He ceased to speak," or "He ceased speaking." But some words require the infinitive, others the gerund; as, "He began to speak;" "He commenced speaking." It is incorrect to use the infinitive after commence. "I recollect having seen him" is better than "I recollect to have seen him." 44 She acknowledged to have felt an impulse towards him."-Irving. Better, having felt. "He was suspected to entertain sentiments unfavorable to the government."-Scott. Better, of entertaining. "In danger to form rash and hasty conclusions."-Swift. Better, of forming. "So supercilious and exacting that the

Why is "I expected to have found him | Why is "I can go if I wish to" incorat home" incorrect? "Please excuse me"? "I will try and see him"?

rect?

Is "He commenced to speak" correct?

footmen avoided to go his errands "-Taine's Eng. Literature. Avoided going [on]. "I do not care for terminating my thoughts in barren speculations.”—Addison. Care to terminate.

13. For the gerund in such forms as "The house is building" see Remark 3, p. 91. Some examples are presented here. "The whilst this play is playing." Shakespeare. "I saw that a way was opening for the establishment of real liberty, that a foundation was laying for the deliverance of man."-Milton. "While the temple of the Lord was building.”—Id. "Designs are carrying on against their liberties."-Locke. "He begged the honor of his Majesty's accepting a dinner while his carriage was repairing, and while the dinner was preparing begged leave to amuse his Majesty with a collection of pictures."-Horace Walpole. "While this necessary movement was making."-Cooper. "An attempt is making in the English Parliament."-Daniel Webster. "While these things were transacting in "While innocent blood was shedding under the form of justice Parliament met."-Macaulay. "There is always mason's work doing."Ruskin. "The excellent edition of Shakespeare now publishing in Boston."-G. P. Marsh. "For me the final chapter is now writing; it may be already written."— John Bright.*

England."-Bancroft.

EXERCISES.

1. Show how the infinitives are used:

To err is human. To whisper in school is forbidden. To remain here is impossible.

To laugh were want of goodness and of grace,
And to be grave exceeds all power of face."-Pope.

He has learned to swim. Cease to do evil.
He scorns to lie. I dislike to scold him. He desires

These boys love to study.
Learn to do well.

He has ceased to read. Fools rush Give me to see, and Ajax asks no more.

to see her. They began to fight. in where angels fear to tread.

*Dickens, whom grammaticasters seem to have frightened from his propriety at the beginning of his career, recovered himself at a more mature period. "Baskets, troughs, and tubs of grapes had been carrying all day along the roads and lanes."-Little Dorrit. "Among the mighty store of wonderful chains that are for ever forging."-Edwin Drood. "The street lamps were lighting."-Little

Dorrit.

Dr. Fitzedward Hall, a Sanskrit scholar, who, if we may judge from his style, is very much dissatisfied with classical English generally, defends is being built by taking the ground that it is composed istbeing built, not of is being+built, and he thinks this analysis removes every objection. "If Mr. White," says he, "had hit upon the right participle, I suspect his chapter on Is Being Done would have been much shorter than it is, and very different."-Modern English, p. 339. Now, being expresses in the participial form what is expresses in the indicative form, and, as is built means is in the state expressed by built, being built must mean being in the state expressed by built. If "the house is built" means that the house is completed, "the house being built" must mean that the house is completed; and this is the sense in which such expressions are used. "That house being finished, the workmen have begun the other." If is being finished means is+being finished, it can not mean not finished, as Dr. Hall wishes it to mean.

What Dr. Hall's skill in criticism is may be inferred from the following passage: "What is there in Latin-which helplessly leaves it doubtful whether amor is to mean 'I am loved,' or 'I am being loved'-to suggest is being done?" If is being done were an established form in the language, the form would not be proper in such verbs as love. (See Remark 1, p. 91 of this Grammar.) As Dr. Hall's imperfect passive"The house is being built" implies that the house is not yet built, so She is being loved" would imply that she is not yet loved, but only on the way to that state.

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