before you arrived;" "Come down ere my child die;" "I have loved her ever since I saw her;" "He will stay till you come;" "He was an industrious boy until he met with those idle fellows."

The prepositions in such constructions are generally regarded as conjunctive adverbs; but they are really prepositions followed by noun-propositions instead of nouns. "He left us before your arrival;" "He left us before you arrived." In the latter sentence before has precisely the same meaning that it has in the former. The use of that after these words is readily explained when they are regarded as prepositions. "Before that you arrived."*

Other prepositions have been followed by noun-propositions; as, “I'll charm his eyes against she do appear."-Shakespeare. "Urijah made it against King Ahaz came from Damascus."-English Bible. "Without you were so simple, none else would be."-Shakespeare. Without is not often used in this way by good writers;

but there is nothing in the nature of things to condemn such use of it.

In and for are frequently followed by noun-propositions; as, "It is human in that it is brought about through that nature by human instrumentality."—Prof. Whitney. With in the noun-proposition is always introduced by that; for is used either with or without that. In the following passage the first noun-proposition is without that, the second has that:

"I hate him for he is a Christian,

But more for that in low simplicity
He lends out money gratis."-Shakespeare.

Besides is often used before noun-propositions; as, "Besides that he is out of money, he is not well enough to go." This word is always a preposition. "He is not well enough to go; besides this, he is out of money." Or with this omitted: "He is not well enough to go; besides, he is out of money."

5. "This is a dangerous opinion for men to entertain." The object of for is the infinitive with its subject. "Each man walks with his head in a cloud of poisonous flies."-Tennyson. The object of with is not head-he does not walk with his head-but the whole expression, his head in a cloud of poisonous flies. "With thee to smile upon him he is happy."-Sterne. In this sentence the object of with is thee to smile upon him. To smile is an adjunct-infinitive. (See p. 221.)

6. The object of the preposition is sometimes omitted; as, This is the man [that] I spoke to;" "Not the form of government [which] he lives under, but the church [which] he is a member of."-Carlyle. The object is omitted when it is the antecedent to a compound relative pronoun or to the relative pronoun what; as, "I will give it to [the person] whoever desires it;" "He devotes himself heartily to [the thing] whatever interests him;" "I furnished him with [the thing or the things] what he desired."

The object is often omitted in certain idiomatic constructions; as, “He is not fit [for men] to converse with [him];" "I had no need of any light [which] to read my guardian's letter by" (or "to read my guardian's letter by [it]"); "He has no home to go to"" to which he can go;" "He had no pillow to lay his head on "=" on which to lay his head;" "Virtue is worth dying for [it]."

*Bopp (Conjugations-system, p. 82) calls that (German dasz) "the article of the verb." It would be more correct to call it the article of the noun-proposition; for it does not refer to the verb simply, but to the whole proposition regarded as a unit.

What prepositions are mentioned as taking noun-propositions as objects? What is said of besides?

What is the object of for in "This is a dangerous opinion for men to entertain"? |

Object of with in "Each man walks with

his head in a cloud of poisonous flies"? The object of with in "With thee to smile upon him he is happy"?

Give examples of omission of the object.

7. The preposition is sometimes omitted; as, "Hers are we;' [with] one voice we cried."-Tennyson. "She rose [to] her height."—Id.

In such expressions as "despite Duke Humphrey " a preposition is omitted before despite and one after it. Generally the prepositions are expressed; as, "In despite of his quick wit."-Shakespeare. "Seized my hand in despite of my efforts to the contrary."-Irving. "He will go instead of me." Instead consists of the noun stead and the preposition in, written together without any good reason. "They excused him because of (by cause of) his illness." Because consists of the preposition be, an old form of by, and the noun cause. "He sits astride of the fence." Astride consists of the preposition a and the noun stride, and it should always be followed by of. (See Remark 2, p. 122.)

8. The preposition is often improperly omitted; as, "It is [of] no use to try;" "He was not worthy [of] such honor;" "He was unworthy [of] the office;" "We banish you [from] our territories;" "The mound [on] the left hand [of] the town;" "At either end [of] the mast;" "It was [of] the size of my hand;" "On this side [of] the river;" "He did not refrain [from] expressing himself severely;" "He was prevented [from] speaking to her."

9. The preposition is always omitted when the relative that is used in such expressions as "About the time that his favorite prince left the crown of Poland." -Addison. (See Remark 2, p. 161.)

10. Home and nouns denoting time, space, degree, amount, direction, are put in the objective without a preposition; as, "He went home;" "I was there five years;" "He was forty miles from home that day;" "The pole is ten feet too long;" "This is a great deal better than that;" "A flaming sword which turned every way;" "The country was not a cent richer;" "He was several times defeated."

In each of these sentences a preposition is implied; for what is expressed in other languages by cases is expressed in modern English by prepositions; and though the preposition is not expressed, there is an idea of it in the mind. In went home there is something implied besides going and home. "He went to his home;" I was there for five years;" "The pole is too long by ten feet;" "This is better than that by a great deal;" "A flaming sword which turned in every direction;" "The country is not richer by a cent;" "He was defeated at several times;" "He was at (a distance of) forty miles from home on that day."

The preposition is frequently omitted before a noun followed by an adjunct, especially when this noun is the same as the noun of the adjunct; as, "They walk [with] hand in hand;" "[For] day after day we stuck;" "Some, [with] orb in orb, around their queen extend;" "[At] time after time I warned him;" "He does the same thing [on] one day after another;" "He rushed down the hill [with] heels over head;" "He approached the lady [with] hat in hand."*

11. The objective is used without a preposition after the adjective worth, and sometimes after like, unlike, near, next, and nigh; as, "This hat is worth (equal in value) [to] five dollars;" "He is like [to] his father;" "He sat near [to] me;" "He sat next [to] his grandfather;" "They are nigh [to] the city." The preposition is

*In such expressions as "They tore him limb from limb" it is the verb tore that affects the construction-they tore him, they tore limb from limb. Compare "They tore them one from the other."

Give examples of the omission of the | preposition.

What is said of despite? Of instead? Of because? Of astride?

Give examples of the improper omission of the preposition.

With is said of that?

What nouns are mentioned as put in the
objective without prepositions?
What is said of the adjective worth?
What is said of like, unlike, near, next, and
nigh?

seldom omitted after next, not very frequently after nigh, more frequently after

near.

The preposition is sometimes omitted in one part of a sentence and expressed in another; as, "No more like my father than I to Hercules."-Shakespeare.

12. The preposition is sometimes placed after the objective; as, "Come, walk with me the jungle through."—Heber.

In familiar language the preposition is often placed after a relative or an interrogative pronoun; as, "Whom did you speak to?"-"To whom did you speak?" The preposition is always placed after the relative that; as, "This is the man that he spoke to."

13. "The sap will run as long as it freezes nights."-Rev. E. Kellogg. "Perhaps you'll like to come here days, with me, and read and sew."—Mrs. Harriet B. Stowe. "Where the sun afternoons used to steal."-Eclectic Fifth Reader. This use of the noun without a preposition to denote the time of a repeated action is a disagreeable provincial vulgarism. The proper form is the singular with a preposition; as, "The sap will run as long as it freezes at night, or in the night, or by night;" "Where the sun after noon used to steal." "On a Sunday or in an evening after the hours of business some courts and alleys, which a few hours before had been alive with hurrying feet and anxious faces, afe as silent as a country churchyard."— Macaulay. "By night full often hath she gossiped by my side."-Shakespeare. "He plies the duke at morning and at night."-Id. "Tis a custom with him i' (in) the afternoon to sleep."-Id. Shakespeare sometimes uses the preposition o' (on or of) with the plural; as, "Anthony that revels long o' nights."

14. Avoid the use of such vulgar expressions as "Where is my book at?" The answer corresponding to this would be "It is at here," "It is at there," or "It is at on the table."

When where is used for whither (to what place), as in "Where are you going?" the preposition to should not be used with it, as in "Where are you going to ?"

EXERCISES.

1. Point out the objects of the prepositions:

John rode on the horse. George is obedient to his parents. The book lies before him on the table. You will gain happiness by a life of virtue. By close attention to study he became learned.

[Remark 1.] Thomas is employed in cutting wood. The bars did not prevent the prisoner from escaping. By so doing he gained the friendship of his former enemy.

[Remark 2.] The country is about to be ruined. The time was about to expire when the man entered. You are about to enter a new field of labor.

*These words, or most of them, when not followed by prepositions expressed are regarded by some as themselves prepositions; the class of prepositions being looked upon by them as, like Autolycus, "a snapper-up of unconsidered trifles, or perhaps as a kind of grammatical waste-basket into which they may throw any thing which they do not know what else to do with. Some of their " prepositions" may be compared; as, "Nearest his heart."-Shakespeare. "And earthly power doth then show likest God's."-Id.

Give examples in which the preposition | What of such expressions as "Where is is placed after the object.

What is said of such expressions as "The sap will run as long as it freezes nights"?

my book at"?

What of such expressions as "Where are you going to"?

[Remark 3.] He did not decide the question as to who is the owner. The result will depend on who is the leader. As to what is the usual course in such matters I can give no opinion.

[Remark 4.] He went away before you came. Be patient till we have appeased the multitude. Pause a day or two before you hazard. You never saw her since she was deformed. The maiden perished ere he came. Besides that it is raining, he could not find the way in such a night as this. That this drama has merit is shown in that it has kept its place on the boards.

[Remark 5.] This is a dangerous step for you to take. He walks with his hands in his pockets.

[Remark 6.] This is the man I gave it to. This paper belongs to whoever owns the book. It will be delivered to whoever establishes his claim. He is ready to give assistance to whoever gives assistance to him. I am pleased with what he has done. He is pleased with whatever is done to please him. How many people are busy in this world in gathering together a handful of thorns to sit upon !-Jeremy Taylor.

[Remark 7.] He was rejected because of his impertinence. He shall read the letter instead of you. The mischievous monkey is sitting astride of the dog.

Some future time, if so indeed you will,

You may with those self-styled our lords ally

Your fortunes.-Tennyson.

[Remark 10.] He went home. He walked five miles. Two days, as many nights, he slept. His spear was sixteen feet long. He is a great deal worse. The painter flattered her a little. I will not be a step behind. The cheapest of us is ten groats too dear.-Shakespeare. I would not care a pin if the other three were in.-Id. It does not matter one marble splinter.-Ruskin.

[Remark 11.] The knife is not worth fifty cents. The good man is now near the time of his departure. This book is worth its weight in gold. Soldiers in peace are like chimneys in summer.

[Remark 12.] It is known all the world over. Whom did you give the letter to? From peak to peak, the rattling crags among, leaps the live thunder.-Byron. They sat in silent watchfulness the sacred cypress-tree about.- Whittier.

2. Correct the errors:

She spoke to he and I. She spoke to him and I. To who did you speak? Who did you speak to? It was divided between he and I. It was divided between him and I. Between you and I, he is not

honest. From he that is needy turn not away. and I.

She'd make two of she.

It is addressed to you

[Remark 8.] What use is it to try? He is not worthy your protection. He lives on this side the mountains? It was the size of a piece of chalk. He was prevented crossing the stream. The Jews were banished Rome. The tree was three feet diameter. It was nine feet circumference.

[Remark 13.] He plies the duke mornings and nights. He walks evenings and rides mornings. The proposed journey to a new world kept me awake nights. Mab that plats the manes of horses nights. Sleeping within mine orchard, my custom always afternoons. This thy creature frequents my house nights. He sleeps days more than the wild-cat.

[Remark 14.] Where is my hat at? It is at here. Where is the rat at? There it is at. Where are my books and slate and cap at? Do you ask where they are at? They are at on that table.

RULE VII.

A noun annexed to another noun for the sake of explanation or emphasis must be in the same case; as, "This book belongs to Charles Thomson, him who was with me yesterday."

Remarks.-1. The noun annexed is said to be in apposition with the other.* The word apposition is derived from the Latin appositus, put to; the noun in apposition is put to the other.

2. The noun annexed must be in the same part of the sentence, subject or predicate, with the other noun.

3. This construction must not be confounded with that of the predicate-nominative (Rule II), or with that of the "factitive objective" (Rule V, Remark 11). A noun in apposition is put in the same part of the sentence with the other noun for the purpose of explanation, description, or emphasis; the predicate-nominative is not annexed to the subject, but is put in that part of the sentence by which something is affirmed. There may be a predicate-nominative without a subject. (See Rule II, Remark 3.) The factitive objective is not employed for the purpose of explanation, but to complete the idea begun by the verb. "The robbers made Valentine captain;" that is, they made captain Valentine, or to coin a word for the purpose of illustration, they captainized Valentine. It is easy to see that the objective captain is more closely connected with the verb made than with the noun Valentine; as if the verb and the factitive objective were united to express the idea and the other objective made the object of this compound expression.

*Some say "in apposition to," regarding the derivation of the word apposition; but the derivation does not always show what preposition is to be employed after a particular word; averse for instance, signifies turned from, and yet we say averse to. A noun in apposition with another noun has a grammatical connection with it.

What is the rule for apposition?

Where is the noun annexed placed?

With what must this construction not be confounded?