DR WILLIAM LOWTH. DR WILLIAM LOWTH (1661-1732) was distinguished for his classical and theological attainments, and the liberality with which he communicated his stores to others. He published a Vindication of the Divine Authority and Inspiration of the Old and New Testaments (1692), Directions for the Profitable Reading of the Holy Scriptures, Commentaries on the Prophets, &c. He furnished notes on Clemens Alexandrinus for Potter's edition of that ancient author, remarks on Josephus for Hudson's edition, and annotations on the ecclesiastical historians for Reading's Cambridge edition of those authors. He also assisted Dr Chandler in his Defence of Christianity from the Prophecies. His learning is said to have been equally extensive and profound, and he accompanied all his reading with critical and philological remarks. Born in London, Dr Lowth took his degrees at Oxford, and experiencing the countenance and support of the bishop of Winchester, became the chaplain of that prelate, a prebend of the cathedral of Winchester, and rector of Buriton. DR BENJAMIN HOADLY. DR BENJAMIN HOADLY, successively bishop of Bangor, Hereford, Salisbury, and Winchester, was a prelate of great controversial ability, who threw the weight of his talents and learning into the scale of Whig politics, at that time fiercely attacked by the Tory and Jacobite parties. Hoadly was born at Westerham, in Kent, in 1676. In 1706,* while rector of St Peter's-le-Poor, London, he attacked a sermon by Atterbury, and thus incurred the enmity and ridicule of Swift and Pope. He defended the revolution of 1688, and attacked the doctrines of divine right and passive obedience with such vigour and perseverance, that, in 1709, the House of Commons recommended him to the favour of the queen. Her majesty does not appear to have complied with this request; but her successor, George I., elevated him to the see of Bangor. Shortly after his elevation to the bench, Hoadly published a work against the nonjurors, sermon preached before the king at St James's, on the Nature of the Kingdom or Church of Christ. The latter excited a long and vehement dispute, known by the name of the Bangorian Controversy, in which forty or fifty tracts were published. The Lower House of Convocation took up Hoadly's works with warmth, and passed a censure upon them, as calculated to subvert the government and discipline of the church, and to impugn and impeach the regal supremacy in and a * Hoadly printed, in 1702, A Letter to the Rev. Mr Fleetwood, occasioned by his Essay on Miracles. In the preface to a volume of tracts published in 1715, in which that Letter was reprinted, the eminent author speaks of Fleetwood in the following terms: This contains some points, relating to the subject of miracles, in which I differed long ago from an excellent person, now advanced, by his merits, to one of the highest stations in the church. When it first appeared in the world, he had too great a soul to make the common return of resentment or contempt, or to esteem a difference of opinion, expressed with civility, to be an unpardonable affront. So far from it, that he not only was pleased to express some good liking of the manner of it, but laid hold on an opportunity which then immediately offered itself, of doing the writer a very considerable piece of service. I think myself obliged, upon this occasion, to acknowledge this in a public manner, wishing that such a procedure may at length cease to be uncommon and singular.' matters ecclesiastical. The controversy was conducted with unbecoming violence, and several bishops and other grave divines-the excellent Sherlock among the number-forgot the dignity of their station and the spirit of Christian charity in the heat of party warfare. Pope alludes sarcastically to Hoadly's sermon in the Dunciad— Toland and Tindal, prompt at priests to jeer, Yet silent bowed to Christ's no kingdom here. The truth, however, is, that there was 'nothing whatever in Hoadly's sermon injurious to the established endowments and privileges, nor to the discipline and government of the English Church, even in theory. If this had been the case, he might have been reproached with some inconsistency in becoming so large a partaker of her honours and emoluments. He even admitted the usefulness of all church authority to oblige any one to external censures for open immoralities, though denying communion, or to pass any sentence which should determine the condition of men with respect to the favour or displeasure of God. Another great question in this controversy was that of religious liberty as a civil right, which the convocation explicitly denied. And another related to the much-debated exercise of private judgment in religion, which, as one party meant virtually to take away, so the other perhaps unreasonably exaggerated.'* The style of Hoadly's controversial treatises is strong and logical, but without any of the graces of composition, and hence they have fallen into comparative oblivion. He was author of several other works, as Terms of Acceptance, Reasonableness of Conformity, Treatise on the Sacrament, &c. A complete edition of his works was published by his son in three folio volumes (1773). There can be no doubt that the independent and liberal mind of Hoadly, aided by his station in the church, tended materially to stem the torrent of slavish submission which then prevailed in the church of England. [The Kingdom of Christ not of this World.] If, therefore, the church of Christ be the kingdom of Christ, it is essential to it that Christ himself be the sole lawgiver and sole judge of his subjects, in all points relating to the favour or displeasure of Almighty God; and that all his subjects, in what station soever they may be, are equally subjects to him; and that no one of them, any more than another, hath authority either to make new laws for Christ's subjects, or to impose a sense upon the old ones, which is the same thing; or to judge, censure, or punish the servants of another master, in matters relating purely to conscience or salvation. If any person hath any other notion, either through a long use of words with inconsistent meanings, or through a negligence of thought, let him but ask himself whether the church of Christ be the kingdom of Christ or not; and if it be, whether this notion of it doth not absolutely exclude all other legislators and judges in matters relating to conscience or the favour of God, or whether it can be his kingdom if any mortal men have such a power of legislation and judgment in it. This inquiry will bring us back to the first, which is the only true account of the church of Christ, or the kingdom of Christ, in the mouth of a Christian; that it is the number of men, whether small or great, whether dispersed or united, who truly and sincerely are subjects to Jesus Christ alone as their lawgiver and judge in matters relating to the favour of God and their eternal salvation. * Hallam's Constitutional History of England. The next principal point is, that, if the church be the kingdom of Christ, and this 'kingdom be not of this world,' this must appear from the nature and end of the laws of Christ, and of those rewards and punishments which are the sanctions of his laws. Now, his laws are declarations relating to the favour of God in another state after this. They are declarations of those conditions to be performed in this world on our part, without which God will not make us happy in that to come. And they are almost all general appeals to the will of that God; to his nature, known by the common reason of mankind, and to the imitation of that nature, which must be our perfection. The keeping his commandments is declared the way to life, and the doing his will the entrance into the kingdom of heaven. The being subjects to Christ, is to this very end, that we may the better and more effectually perform the will of God. The laws of this kingdom, therefore, as Christ left them, have nothing of this world in their view; no tendency either to the exaltation of some in worldly pomp and dignity, or to their absolute dominion over the faith and religious conduct of others of his subjects, or to the erecting of any sort of temporal kingdom under the covert and name of a spiritual one. The sanctions of Christ's law are rewards and punishments. But of what sort? Not the rewards of this world; not the offices or glories of this state; not the pains of prisons, banishments, fines, or any lesser and more moderate penalties; nay, not the much lesser negative discouragements that belong to human society. He was far from thinking that these could be the instruments of such a persuasion as he thought acceptable to God. But as the great end of his kingdom was to guide men to happiness after the short images of it were over here below, so he took his motives from that place where his kingdom first began, and where it was at last to end; from those rewards and punishments in a future state, which had no relation to this world; and to shew that his 'kingdom was not of this world,' all the sanctions which he thought fit to give to his laws were not of this world at all. St Paul understood this so well, that he gives an account of his own conduct, and that of others in the same station, in these words: Knowing the terrors of the Lord, we persuade men:' whereas, in too many Christian countries since his days, if some who profess to succeed him were to give an account of their own conduct, it must be in a quite contrary strain: 'Knowing the terrors of this world, and having them in our power, we do not persuade men, but force their outward profession against their inward persuasion.' Now, wherever this is practised, whether in a great degree or a small, in that place there is so far a change from a kingdom which is not of this world, to a kingdom which is of this world. As soon as ever you hear of any of the engines of this world, whether of the greater or the lesser sort, you must immediately think that then, and so far, the kingdom of this world takes place. For, if the very essence of God's worship he spirit and truth, if religion be virtue and charity, under the belief of a Supreme Governor and Judge, if true real faith cannot be the effect of force, and if there can be no reward where there is no willing choice-then, in all or any of these cases, to apply force or flattery, worldly pleasure or pain, is to act contrary to the interests of true religion, as it is plainly opposite to the maxims upon which Christ founded his kingdom; who chose the motives which are not of this world, to support a kingdom which is not of this world. And indeed it is too visible to be hid, that wherever the rewards and punishments are changed from future to present, from the world to come to the world now in possession, there the kingdom founded by our Saviour is, in the nature of it, so far changed, that it is become, in such a degree, what he professed his kingdom was not that is, of this world; of the same sort with other common earthly 680 kingdoms, in which the rewards are worldly honours, posts, offices, pomp, attendance, dominion; and the punishments are prisons, fines, banishments, galleys and racks, or something less of the same sort. [Ironical View of Protestant Infallibility.] [From the Dedication to Pope Clement XI., prefixed to Sir R. Steele's Account of the State of the Roman Catholic Religion throughout the World.] Your holiness is not perhaps aware how near the churches of us Protestants have at length come to those privileges and perfections which you boast of as peculiar to your own: so near, that many of the most quick-sighted and sagacious persons have not been able to discover any other difference between us, as to the main principle of all doctrine, government, worship, and discipline, but this one, namely, that you cannot err in anything you determine, and we never do; that is, in other words, that you are infallible, and we always in the right. We cannot but esteem the advantage to be exceedingly on our side in this case; because we have all the benefits of infallibility without the absurdity of pretending to it, and without the uneasy task of maintaining a point so shocking to the understanding of mankind. And you must pardon us if we cannot help thinking it to be as great and as glorious a privilege in us to be always in the right, without the pretence to infallibility, as it can be in you to be always in the wrong, with it. Thus, the synod of Dort-for whose unerring decisions public thanks to Almighty God are every three years offered up with the greatest solemnity by the magistrates in that country-the councils of the reformed in France, the assembly of the kirk of Scotland, and, if I may presume to name it, the convocation of England, have been all found to have the very same unquestionable authority which your church claims, solely upon the infallibility which resides in it; and the people to be under the very same strict obligation of obedience to their determinations, which with you is the consequence only of an absolute infallibility. The reason, therefore, why we do not openly set up an infallibility is, because we can do without it. Authority results as well from power as from right, and a majority of votes is as strong a foundation for it as infallibility itself. Councils that may err, never do; and besides, being composed of men whose peculiar business it is to be in the right, it is very immodest for any private person to think them not so; because this is to set up a private corrupted understanding above a public uncorrupted judgment. Thus it is in the north, as well as the south; abroad, as well as at home. All maintain the exercise of the same authority in themselves, which yet they know not how so much as to speak of without ridicule in others. In England it stands thus: The synod of Dort is of no weight; it determined many doctrines wrong. The assembly of Scotland hath nothing of a true authority; and is very much out in its scheme of doctrines, worship, and government. But the church of England is vested with all authority, and justly challengeth all obedience. If one crosses a river in the north, there it stands thus: The church of England is not enough reformed; its doctrines, worship, and government have too much of antichristian Rome in them. But the kirk of Scotland hath a divine right from its only head, Jesus Christ, to meet and to enact what to it shall seem fit, for the good of his church. Thus, we left you for your enormous unjustifiable claim to an unerring spirit, and have found out a way, unknown to your holiness and your predecessors, of claiming all the rights that belong to infallibility, even whilst we disclaim and abjure the thing itself. As for us of the church of England, if we will believe many of its greatest advocates, we have bishops in a succession as certainly uninterrupted from the And apostles, as your church could communicate it to us. Thus we have indeed left you; but we have fixed ourselves in your seat, and make no scruple to resemble you in our defences of ourselves and censures of others whenever we think it proper. * * We have not indeed now the power of burning heretics, as our forefathers of the Reformation had. The civil power hath taken away the act which continued that glorious privilege to them, upon the remonstrance of several persons that they could not sleep whilst that act was awake. But then, everything on this side death still remains untouched to us: we can molest, harass, imprison, and ruin any man who pretends to be wiser than his betters. And the more unspotted the man's character is, the more necessary we think it to take such crushing methods. Since the toleration hath been authorised in these nations, the legal zeal of men hath fallen the heavier upon heretics-for it must always, it seems, be exercised upon some sort of persons or other-and amongst these, chiefly upon such as differ from us in points in which, above all others, a difference of opinion is most allowable; such as are acknowledged to be very abstruse and unintelligible, and to have been in all ages thought of and judged of with the same difference and variety. CHARLES LESLIE. of the arguments being only equalled by the keenness and pertinacity with which they are pursued. WILLIAM WHISTON. WILLIAM WHISTON (1667-1752) was an able but eccentric scholar, and so distinguished as a mathematician, that he was made deputy-professor of mathematics in the university of Cambridge, and afterwards successor to Sir Isaac Newton, of whose expounders. Entering into holy orders, he became principles he was chaplain to the bishop of Norwich, rector of Lowestoffe, &c. He was also appointed Boyle lecturer in the university, but was at length expelled for promulgating Arian opinions. He then went to London, where a subscription was made for him, and he delivered a series of lectures on astronomy, which were patronised by Addison and Steele. Towards the close of his life, Whiston became a Baptist, and believed that the millennium was approaching, when the Jews would all be restored. Had he confined himself to mathematical studies, he would have earned a high name in science; but his time and attention were dissipated by his theological pursuits, in which he evinced more zeal than judgment. His works are numerous. Besides a Theory of the Earth, in defence of the Mosaic account of the creation, published in 1696, and some tracts on the Newtonian system, he wrote an Essay on the Revelation of St John (1706), Sermons on the Scripture Prophecies (1708), Primitive Christianity Revived, five volumes (1712), Memoirs of his Own Life (1749–50), &c. An extract from the last-mentioned work is subjoined: one of the most successful [Anecdote of the Discovery of the Newtonian Philosophy.] CHARLES LESLIE (1650-1722), author of a work still popular, A Short and Easy Method with the Deists, was a son of a bishop of Clogher, who is said After I had taken holy orders, I returned to the to have been of a Scottish family. Educated at college, and went on with my own studies there, particuTrinity College, Dublin, Charles Leslie studied the larly the mathematics and the Cartesian philosophy, law in London, but afterwards turned his attention which was alone in vogue with us at that time. But it to divinity, and in 1680 took orders. As chancellor was not long before I, with immense pains, but no of the cathedral of Connor, he distinguished himself assistance, set myself with the utmost zeal to the study by several disputations with Catholic divines, and of Sir Isaac Newton's wonderful discoveries in his by the boldness with which he opposed the pro- Philosophia Naturalis Principia Mathematica, one or popish designs of King James. Nevertheless, at the two of which lectures I had heard him read in the public Revolution, he adopted a decisive tone of Jacobitism, schools, though I understood them not at all at that from which he never swerved through life. Remov. time-being indeed greatly excited thereto by a paper of ing to London, he was chiefly engaged for several Dr Gregory's when he was professor in Scotland, wherein years in writing controversial works against he had given the most prodigious commendations to Quakers, Socinians, and Deists, of which, however, none are now remembered besides the little treatise of which the title has been given, and which appeared in 1699. He also wrote many occasional and periodical tracts in behalf of the House of Stuart, to whose cause his talents and celebrity certainly lend no small lustre. Being for one of these publications obliged to leave the country, he repaired in 1713 to the court of the Chevalier at Bar-le-Duc, and was well received. James allowed him to have a chapel fitted up for the English service, and was even expected to lend a favourable ear to his arguments against popery; but this expectation proved vain. It was not possible for an earnest and bitter controversialist like Leslie to remain long at rest in such a situation, and we are not therefore surprised to find him return in disgust to England in 1721. He soon after died at his house of Glaslough, in the county of Monaghan. The works of this remarkable man have been collected in seven volumes (Oxford, 1832), and it must be allowed that they place their author very high in the list of controversial writers, the ingenuity that work, as not only right in all things, but in a manner the effect of a plainly divine genius, and had already caused several of his scholars to keep acts, as we call them, upon several branches of the Newtonian philosophy; while we at Cambridge, poor wretches, the Cartesian, which Sir Isaac Newton had also himwere ignominiously studying the fictitious hypotheses of self done formerly, as I have heard him say. What the occasion of Sir Isaac Newton's leaving the Cartesian philosophy, and of discovering his amazing theory of gravity was, I have heard him long ago, soon after my first acquaintance with him, which was 1694, thus relate, and of which Dr Pemberton gives the like account, and somewhat more fully, in the preface to his explication of his philosophy. It was this: an inclination came into Sir Isaac's mind to try whether the same power did not keep the moon in her orbit, notwithstanding her projectile velocity, which he knew always tended to go along a straight line the tangent of that orbit, which makes stones and all heavy bodies. with us fall downward, and which we call gravity; taking this postulatum, which had been thought of before, that such power might decrease in a duplicate proportion of the distances from the earth's centre. Upon Sir Isaac's first trial, when he took a degree of a DR MATTHEW TINDAL (1657-1733) was a zealous great circle on the earth's surface, whence a degree at controversialist, in times when controversy was the distance of the moon was to be determined also, to pursued with much keenness by men fitted for be sixty measured miles only, according to the gross higher duties. His first attacks were directed measures then in use, he was in some degree dis- against priestly power, but he ended in opposing appointed; and the power that restrained the moon in Christianity itself; and Paine and other later her orbit, measured by the versed sines of that orbit, writers against revelation have drawn some of appeared not to be quite the same that was to be ex- their weapons from the armoury of Tindal. Like pected had it been the power of gravity alone by which Dryden and many others, Tindal embraced the the moon was there influenced. Upon this disappoint- Roman Catholic religion when it became fashionment, which made Sir Isaac suspect that this power was able in the court of James II.; but he abjured it partly that of gravity and partly that of Cartesius's in 1687, and afterwards became an advocate under vortices, he threw aside the paper of his calculation, and William III., from whom he received a pension went to other studies. However, some time afterward, of £200 per annum. He wrote several political when Monsieur Picart had much more exactly measured and theological tracts, but the work by which he the earth, and found that a degree of a great circle was is chiefly known is entitled Christianity as Old as sixty-nine and a half such miles, Sir Isaac, in turning the Creation, or the Gospel a Republication of the over some of his former papers, lighted upon this old Religion of Nature. The tendency of this treatise imperfect calculation, and, correcting his former error, is to discredit revealed religion: it was answered discovered that this power, at the true correct distance of the moon from the earth, not only tended to the by Dr Waterland; and Tindal replied by reiterating earth's centre, as did the common power of gravity his former statements and arguments. He wrote with us, but was exactly of the right quantity; and that a second volume to this work shortly before his if a stone was carried up to the moon, or to sixty semi- death, but Dr Gibson, the bishop of London, interAfter the diameters of the earth, and let fall downward by its fered, and prevented its publication. gravity, and the moon's own menstrual motion was death of Tindal, it appeared from his will that stopped, and she was let fall by that power which before he had left a sum of £2000 to Budgell-already retained her in her orbit, they would exactly fall towards noticed as one of the writers of the Spectator-but the same point, and with the same velocity; which was this sum was so disproportioned to the testator's therefore no other power than that of gravity. And means, that Budgell was accused of forging the since that power appeared to extend as far as the moon, will, and Tindal's nephew got it set aside. The at the distance of 240,000 miles, it was but natural disgrace consequent on this transaction-so often or rather necessary, to suppose it might reach twice, alluded to by Pope and others-is supposed to thrice, four times, &c., the same distance, with the same have been the primary cause of Budgell's comdiminution, according to the squares of such distances mitting suicide. The nephew, NICHOLAS TINDAL perpetually which noble discovery proved the happy (1687-1774), was a Fellow of Trinity College, and occasion of the invention of the wonderful Newtonian chaplain of Greenwich Hospital. He translated philosophy. some works and was author of a continuation of Rapin's History of England. DR WILLIAM NICOLSON-DR MATTHEW TINDAL-NICHOLAS TINDAL-DR HUMPHREY PRIDEAUX. DR WILLIAM NICOLSON (1655-1727), successively bishop of Carlisle and Londonderry, and, lastly, archbishop of Cashel, was a learned antiquary and investigator of our early records. He published Historical Libraries of England, Scotland, and Ireland -collected into one volume, in 1776-being a detailed catalogue or list of books and manuscripts referring to the history of each nation. He also wrote An Essay on the Border Laws, A Treatise on the Laws of the Anglo-Saxons, and A Description of Poland and Denmark. The only professional works of Dr Nicolson are a preface to Chamberlayne's Polyglott of the Lord's Prayer, and some able pamphlets on the Bangorian Controversy. 682 DR HUMPHREY PRIDEAUX (1648-1724) was author of a still popular and valuable work, the Connection of the History of the Old and New Testament, the first part of which was published in 1715, and the second in 1717. He wrote also a Life of Mahomet (1697), Directions to Churchwardens (1707), and A Treatise on Tithes (1710). Prideaux's Connection is a work of great research, connecting the Old with the New Testament by a luminous historical summary. Few books have had a greater circulation, and it is invaluable to all students of divinity. Its author was highly respected for his learning and piety. He was archdeacon of Suffolk, and at one time Hebrew lecturer at Christ Church, Oxford. His extensive library of oriental books has been preserved in Clare Hall, Cambridge, to which college it was presented by himself. Sixth Period. THE REIGN OF GEORGE II. [1727 TO 1760]. POETS. HE startling denunciations of death and judgment, his solemn appeals, his piety, and his epigram-was thirty-equally an original. Gray and Collins aimed at the three years dazzling imagery and magnificence of lyrical poetry comprehending the direct antipodes of Pope. Akenside descanted the reign of on the operations of the mind, and the associated George II. charms of taste and genius, in a strain of melodious and original blank verse. And the best of the secondary poets, as Shenstone, Dyer, and Mason, had each a distinct and independent poetical character. Johnson alone, of all the eminent authors of this period, seems to have directly copied the style of Pope and Dryden. It is true that few or none of the poets we have named had much immediate influence on literature: Gray was ridiculed, and Collins was neglected, because both public taste and criticism had been vitiated and reduced to a low ebb. The spirit of true poetry, however, was not dead; the seed was sown, and in the next generation Cowper completed what Thomson had begun. The conventional style was destined to fall, leaving only that taste for correct language and polished versification which was established by the example of Pope, and found to be quite compatible with the utmost freedom and originality of conception and expression. were not prolific of original genius, but literature and science still made progress, and their results were more generally diffused among the people. There was no munificent patronage from the crown or ministers of state to encourage or reward authors. The magnificence of Dorset and Halifax found no imitators. Sir Robert Walpole, the great minister of the period, in ten years-from 1731 to 1742-spent above £50,000 on public writers, but his liberality was extended only to obscure and unscrupulous partisans, the supporters of his government, whose names would have passed into oblivion but for the satire of Pope. And Pope himself, by his ridicule of poor authors and their Grub-street productions, helped to accelerate that downfall of the literary character, which he charged upon the throne and the ministry. The tone of public morality also was low; and authors had to contend with the neglect and difficulties incident to a transition period between the loss of patronage and the growth of a reading public numerous and enlightened enough to appreciate and support sound literature. These disadvantages, however, were not insuperable. The novels of Richardson, Fielding, and Smollett render the reign of the second George the brightest epoch in English fiction. Hume and Robertson had also commenced as historians. In theology and mental philosophy, the names of Bishop Butler and Jonathan Edwards stand out prominently. Literary periodicals abounded, and monthly magazines were then first established. EDWARD YOUNG. EDWARD YOUNG, author of the Night Thoughts, was born in 1681 at Upham, in Hampshire, where his father-afterwards dean of Salisbury-was rector. He was educated at Winchester School, and subsequently at All Souls' College, Oxford. In 1712, he commenced public life as a courtier and poet, and he continued both characters till he was past eighty. One of his patrons was the notorious Duke of Wharton, 'the scorn and wonder of his days,' whom Young accompanied to Ireland in 1717. He was next tutor to Lord Burleigh, and was induced to give up this situation by Wharton, who promised to provide for him in a more suitable and ample manner. The duke also prevailed on Young, as a political supporter, to come forward as a candidate for the representation of the borough of Cirencester in parliament, and he gave him a bond for £600 to defray the expenses. Young was defeated, Wharton died, and the Court of Chancery In poetry, the name of Pope continued to be the decided against the validity of the bond. The poet, greatest. His Moral Essays and Imitations of being now qualified by experience, published a Horace-the happiest of his works-were produced satire on the Universal Passion-the Love of Fame, in this period. The most distinguished of his which is at once keen and powerful, and the nearest contemporaries, however, adopted styles of their approach we have to the polished satire of Pope. own, or at least departed widely from that of their When upwards of fifty, Young entered the church, illustrious master. Thomson-who survived Pope wrote a panegyric on the king, and was made one only four years-made no attempt to enter the of his majesty's chaplains. Swift has said that the school of polished satire and pungent wit. His poet was compelled to enthusiastic descriptions of nature, and his warm poetical feeling, seemed to revive the spirit of the elder muse, and to assert the dignity of genuine inspiration. Young in his best performances-his And it has been recently found by Mr Peter Torture his invention 683 |