ANGLO-SAXON WRITERS. tongue experienced little change for five centuries, the chief accessions which it received being Latin terms introduced by Christian missionaries. During this period, literature flourished to a much greater extent than might be expected, when we consider the generally rude condition of the people. It was chiefly cultivated by individuals of the religious orders, a few of whom can easily be discerned, through their obscure biography, to have been men of no mean genius. During the eighth century, books were multiplied immensely by the labours of these ecclesiastics, and through their efforts, learning penetrated into the upper classes of lay society. This age presents us with historical chronicles, theological treatises, religious, political, and narrative poetry, in great abundance, written both in Latin and in the native tongue.* THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE is essentially a branch of the Teutonic, the language spoken by the inhabitants of Central Europe immediately before the dawn of history. The Roman occupation of Britain left no permanent traces behind, unless it be the introduction of municipal incorporations. In France, Italy, and Spain, the Roman language was naturalised, and forms the foundation of the modern speech; but in England the great bulk of the laws, the language, and institutions are Saxon. In the northern and western regions of Europe, the three great divisions or genera of language have been classified by Mr Sharon Turner, the historian of the AngloSaxons, under the heads of the Celtic, the Gothic, and Slavonic. The Celtic still lingers, though differing in dialect, in Wales, Ireland, the Highlands The earliest name in the list of Anglo-Saxon of Scotland, and the Isle of Man. The Gothic writers is that of Gildas, generally described as a consists of the ancient Saxon and its kindred missionary of British parentage, living in the first languages, the English, the modern German, the half of the sixth century, and the author of a Latin Danish, Swedish, and Dutch. The original Slavonic tract on early British history. Owing to the is represented by the Russian, the Polish, Bohemian, obscurity of this portion of our annals, it has been and neighbouring dialects. The conquest of Britain the somewhat extraordinary fate of Gildas to be by the Saxon confederation was slow and difficult, represented, first as flourishing at two periods more the result of a succession of fierce and sanguinary than a century distant from each other; then as two conflicts, extending from the middle of the fifth different men of the same name, living at different to the middle of the sixth century. New colonies, times; and, finally, as no man at all, for his very however, were formed on each invasion, and the existence is now doubted. Nennius is another name subjugation was finally complete. The conquerors of this age, which, after being long connected with a succeeded so effectually in imposing their language, small historical work, written, like that of Gildas, in as well as their institutions upon the natives, that of Latin, has latterly been pronounced supposititious. the 38,000 words, radical and derivative, composing The first unquestionably real author of distinction the English language, about 23,000 are of Saxon is ST COLUMBANUS, a native of Ireland, and a origin. Our strongest passions and emotions, our man of vigorous ability, who contributed greatly to most familiar thoughts and endearing appellations- the advancement of Christianity in various parts nearly all that applies to actual life and business of Western Europe, and died in 615. He wrote find expression in the speech of these rude maritime religious treatises and Latin poetry. As yet, no invaders. * Biographia Britannica Literaria: Anglo-Saxon Period. By Thomas Wright, M. A. From its first establishment, the Anglo-Saxon educated Anglo-Saxon writer composed in his ver- of Scripture, which he was required to repeat in nacular tongue: it was generally despised by the verse. Cadmon went home with his task, and the literary class, as was the case at some later periods next morning he produced a poem which excelled of our history, and Latin was held to be the only in beauty all that they were accustomed to hear. language fit for regular composition. In Ireland He afterwards yielded to the earnest solicitations of and Wales, however, the Celtic bards continued the Abbess Hilda, and became a monk of her house; their rude and passionate strains, many of which and she ordered him to transfer into verse the whole have lately been collected and published by of the sacred history. We are told that he was archæologists. continually occupied in repeating to himself what he heard, and, "like a clean animal, ruminating it, he turned it into most sweet verse.' "Cadmon thus composed many poems on the Bible histories, and on miscellaneous religious subjects, and some of these have been preserved. His account of the Fall of Man is somewhat like that given in Paradise Lost, and one passage in it might almost be supposed to have been the foundation of a corresponding one in Milton's sublime epic. It is that in which Satan is described as reviving from the consternation of his overthrow. A modern translation into English follows: The first Anglo-Saxon writer of note, who composed in his own language, and of whom there are any remains, is CEDMON, a monk of Whitby, who died about 680. Cædmon was a genius of the class headed by Burns, a poet of nature's making, sprung from the bosom of the common people, and little indebted to education. It appears that he at one time acted in the capacity of a cow-herd. The circumstances under which his talents were first developed, are narrated by Bede with a strong cast of the marvellous, under which it is possible, however, to trace a basis of natural truth. We are told that he was so much less instructed than most of his equals, that he had not even learned any poetry; so that he was frequently obliged to retire, in order to hide his shame, when the harp was moved towards him in the hall, where at supper it was customary for each person to sing in turn. On one of these occasions, it happened to be Cædmon's turn to keep guard at the stable during the night, and, overcome with vexation, he quitted the table and retired to his post of duty, where, laying himself down, he fell into a sound slumber. In the midst of his sleep, a stranger appeared to him, and, saluting him by his name said: "Cadmon, sing me something." Cædmon answered: "I know nothing to sing; for my incapacity in this respect was the cause of my leaving the hall to come hither." "Nay," said "but thou hast something to sing." the stranger, "What must I sing?" said Cædmon. Sing the Creation," was the reply; and thereupon Cædmon began to sing verses "which he had never heard before," and which are said to have been as follows: Nu we sceolan herian* heofon-rices weard, metodes mihte, and his mod-ge-thone, swa he wundra ge-hwæs, refter teode, frea ælmihtig! 66 Now we shall praise for the children of men the guardian of mankind, Cædmon then awoke; and he was not only able to repeat the lines which he had made in his sleep, but he continued them in a strain of admirable versification. In the morning, he hastened to the townreeve, or bailiff, of Whitby, who carried him before the Abbess Hilda; and there, in the presence of some of the learned men of the place, he told his story, and they were all of opinion that he had received the gift of song from Heaven. They then expounded to him in his mother-tongue a portion * In our specimens of the Anglo-Saxon, modern letters are substituted for those peculiar characters employed in that language to express th, dh, and w. evil befall, about the realm of heaven, where I had power of my hands.'* The specimen of Cadmon above given in the original language, may serve as a general one of Anglo-Saxon poetry. It will be observed that it is neither in measured feet, like Latin verse, nor rhymed, but that the sole peculiarity which distinguishes it from prose is what Mr Wright calls a very regular alliteration, so arranged, that in every couplet there should be two principal words in the line beginning with the same letter, which letter must also be the initial of the first word on which the stress of the voice falls in the second line. translations. The character of this monarch, embracing so much gentleness, along with manly vigour and dignity, and displaying pure tastes, calculated to be beneficial to others as well as himself, seems as if it would have graced the most civilised age nearly as much as it did one of the rudest. After Alfred, the next important name is that of ALFRIC, archbishop of Canterbury, who died in 1006. This learned prelate was a voluminous writer, and, like Alfred, entertained a strong wish to enlighten the people; he wrote much in his native tongue, particularly a collection of homilies, a translation of the first seven books of the Bible, and some religious treatises. He was also the author of a grammar of the Latin tongue, which has given him the sub-name of the Grammarian.' Alfric himself declares that he wrote in Anglo-Saxon, and in that avoided the use of all obscure words, in order that he might be understood by unlettered people. As he was really successful in writing simply, we select a specimen of Anglo-Saxon prose from his Paschal homily, adding an interlinear translation: He Hæthen cild bith ge-fullod, ac hit ne bræt na (4) heathen child is christened, yet he altereth not his hiw with-utan, dheah dhe hit beo with-innan his shape without, though he be within A few names of inferior note-Aldhelm, abbot of awend. Hit bith ge-broht synfull dhurh Adames Malmesbury, Ceolfrid, abbot of Wearmouth, and Felix of Croyland-bring down the list of Anglo- changed. is brought sinful through Adam's Ac hit bith athwogen Saxon writers to BEDE, usually called the Venerable forgægednysse to tham fant fate. washed Bede, who may be allowed to stand at the head disobedience to the font-vessel. But he is of the class. He seems to have spent a modest fram eallum synnum with-innan, dheah dhe hit withsins studious life, uncheckered by incident of any kind, from all inwardly, though he outat the monastery of utan his hiw ne awende. Eac swylce tha halige Wearmouth, where wardly his shape not change. Even 80 the holy he died in 735. His fant water, dhe is ge-haten lifes wyl-spring, is ge-lic works, consisting of font water, which is called life's fountain, is like Scriptural transla- on hiwe odhrum wæterum, & is under dheod tions and com-in shape (to) other mentaries, religious brosnunge; Chair of Bede. waters, and is subject to ac dhæs halgan gastes miht treatises, biogra- corruption; but the Holy Ghost's might ge-nealæcth tham brosnigendlicum wætere, dhurh comes (to) the corruptible water through sacerda bletsunge, & hit mæg sythan (the) priests' blessing, and it may afterwards lichaman & sawle athwean fram eallum synnum, body and soul wash from all dhurh gastlice mihte. through ghostly might. phies, and an ecclesiastical history of the Anglo-Saxons, which is the only one useful in the present age, were forty-four in number; and it is related that he dictated to his amanuensis, and completed a book on the very day of his death. Almost all the writings of these men were in Latin, which renders it less necessary to speak particularly of them in this place. Our subsequent literary history is formed of comparatively obscure names, until it presents to us the enlightened and amiable King ALFRED (848-901),† in whom learning and authorship graced the royal state, without interfering with its proper duties. He translated the historical works of Orosius and Bede, and some religious and moral treatises (including Boethius's De Consolatione Philosophic-a work which he is said to have constantly carried about with him), perhaps also Æsop's Fables and the Psalms of David, into the Anglo-Saxon tongue, designing thereby to extend their utility among his people. No original compositions certainly his have been preserved, excepting the reflections which he introduces into his *Thorpe's edition of Cadmon, 1832. + Where double dates are thus given, it will be understood that the first is the year of the birth, and the second the year of the death, of the individual mentioned. sin, Another sovereign, CANUTE the Dane (1017-1036), was author of a ballad long popular with the English common people, and which he is said to have written on hearing the music of Ely Cathedral, as he was in a boat on the river Nen. One verse of this song has been preserved in the Historia Eliensis, and it appears, according to modern taste, to possess little lyrical harmony: Merie sungen the muneches binnen Ely [Merrily sung the monks within Ely Cynewulf, bishop of Winchester, Wulfstan, archbishop of York, and some others, bring down the list of Anglo-Saxon authors to the Conquest, giving to this portion of our literature a duration of nearly five hundred years, or about the space between Chaucer and our own day. During this time, there |