times more valuable than the paper discussed, we encourage discussion but advise brevity.

The chief object of my Address this evening is to place the work of our Institution before our overseas members in better perspective than they can be expected to have from a great distance. The mining engineer must at some time or other wander over a considerable part of the globe if he is to gain a comprehensive knowledge of his subject. He may feel happy in his present occupation, but in time he will desire a wider experience, and then he will more readily appreciate the benefits of membership of this Institution. We are cosmopolitan in character, and have undertaken work for the general benefit of the profession which no local society could accomplish.

In the Council's Report for the year 1920 one of the objects of the Overseas Committee is stated to be:

"The increase in the roll of membership by securing the inclusion in it of all who possess the necessary qualifications, to whom the advantages of belonging to the central professional body should be obvious, without diminishing but rather increasing their interest in and service to the kindred local societies."

Our Institution has at no time canvassed for new members, for the reason that it would be unfair to press a man to join and then be stringent about his qualifications for admission: We intend to continue our careful scrutiny of candidates, but at the same time strongly desire all qualified engineers to join our organisation, in order that we may safely say of any Britisher who is not a member, that he is not one for the reason that he does not possess the necessary qualifications.

As we are practically in that position to-day, it is most desirable that any member knowing any qualified engineer should impress upon him the importance and desirability of his joining us. We cannot offer him such direct material benefits as a trades union can, if for no other reason than that the conditions of occupation of our members are so diverse that it would be impossible for us to attempt to lay down scales of fees and salaries. However, by supporting the Institution the gulf between the qualified and partially-qualified is enlarged, and this must tend on matters of employment to the benefit of those who bear our stamp of recognition.

THE METALLIFEROUS MINING INDUSTRY.

Though London is the most important centre of this industry, there exists no organisation to represent the industry as a whole.

There are Chambers of Mines representing various districts, but without means of acting collectively. Our Institution directly represents only the professional engaged in the industry.

men

On our suggestion a Joint-Committee was formed in 1916, representative of the principal mining companies whose headquarters are in London, for the special purpose of action in respect of new taxation then being imposed. This Committee did effective work with regard to Excess Profits Duty and the incidence of Income Tax as applied to mines. The Committee made representations to the Royal Commission on the Income Tax in 1919 with regard to the recognition of mines as wasting assets. Hitherto the only wasting assets for which an Income Tax allowance was made were plant and machinery and certain buildings. that contain plant and machinery.

The Commission recommended (1) that when a British company purchased from a foreign resident the right to work a foreign mine, that an allowance should be made for the amortization of the capital sunk in the purchase; (2) that an allowance should be given in respect of all inherently wasting assets which have been created by capital, such as buildings and foundations, surface. works shaft sinkings and initial work of development. The allowances recommended are not, however, equivalent to the full amortization of the capital sunk. Some other lesser injustices from which mining has suffered are also recommended to be alleviated.

I understand that the Government intend to adopt these recommendations, and will introduce them when a newly codified Income Tax Law is prepared. There still remain, however, many matters that can only be dealt with effectively by an organisation that can speak for the whole industry with one voice. Our Institution alone could do little to remove the injustices that existing laws impose upon the mining industry, though we are deeply concerned with the prosperity of the industry.

We may, however, I hope, be useful in inducing the formation of an organisation that can represent the whole industry, which will be able to take action in all mat

ters affecting the economic interests of the industry. Such an organisation could also render valuable services to the public.

I have often been asked by newspaper men why our Institution took no steps to expose a particular mining promotion then before the public, which to the initiated was obviously a fraud. We certainly have a duty as a Chartered Institution to protect the public interests so far as possible, but I contend that it is beyond our scope to attempt to decide on the merits of financial transactions.

An organisation representing the whole metalliferous mining industry might, however, take action, directly or indirectly, to warn the public against fraudulent promotions, for it is to their own interests that the public should receive a square deal.

In London there are one or two papers which undertake exposures of fraudulent promotions, notwithstanding the legal actions to which they thereby render themselves liable. These venturesome papers do not circulate sufficiently extensively or else it must be that there is a fresh crop of fools born every year. An organisation representing the industry would be more effective.

Another matter that could receive the attention of such an organisation is the effect of double Income Tax. The Royal Commission recommended no change in the existing situation as to double taxation of the same income by the United Kingdom Government and by the Government of a foreign State. This is not only bad for the industry, but for the country generally, for by driving away the financing and direction of many mining enterprises from London, this country has lost many orders for plant and materials that would otherwise have been placed here. The report of the Royal Commission states: "this country imposes a tax on all income arising within its borders; it also taxes the income of a person resident here, in whatever part of the world his income may have its origin." The most objectionable feature is that in practice it is held that if a company is registered here, its income arises here and is taxable.

An organisation representative of the whole industry might also take useful part in considering the relationship between gold and currencies, instead of leaving this matter entirely in the hands of bankers and economists. Though the effects of the increased production of gold due to the great gold discoveries in California, Australia

and the Transvaal are well understood by economists, the probable effects of the present seriously diminishing gold output is apparently being lost sight of.

When the chief currencies of the world are rehabilitated on a free gold basis, the effect of the decreased gold output during recent years will become very noticeable, and will accentuate the difficulties of deflation.

Were it not that the Institution hopes to publish a paper at an early date by one of its members, I would have ventured to explain more fully the reasons why I think that an inffuential body, such as I am now suggesting, representing the producers of probably more than half of the gold output of the world, could and should let the Government and the public know their views on the situation.

Hitherto the Government has been guided in its monetary policy by financiers and economists; but if, as seems possible, these advisers have not attached sufficient importance to gold production, the actual position should be made clearer to them.

The

It should be noted that the situation concerning the future production of gold is different from that of other metals. latter were subject during the war, to a large extent, to the ordinary law of supply and demand, whereas gold was artificially controlled. As compared with 1913, the production of gold has fallen off relatively little more than that of lead and tin, and much less than that of zinc and copper. The depression with the base metals has, however, occurred mostly within the last two years, and during the war they enjoyed extra prosperity; but in the case of gold, it has lasted eight years with gradually accumulative effects. Consequently gold production cannot now so readily respond to an increased demand as could the production of base metals.

GENERAL.

I cannot close my Address without some reference to the difficult times we are now going through. Even in normal times the members of our profession must be considered as badly paid, if regard be given to the frequent changes of employment they have to make, with consequent lost time and expense of removal. I will not include also damages for health due to bad climates and for loss of many of the amenities of civilisation, since most of us are prepared to accept these as part of the game. Few achieve a salary of £1,000 per annum be

fore the age of 30, and on the average probably do not remain on one mine more than five years. Then comes a change, often to some other country, with an interval without salary and often with travelling expenses to be paid. To the bachelor this is no great matter, but to the married man such changes entail serious expense, SO that the latter usually are unable to save much.

Nowadays, with a production of gold, tin and lead about three-fourths of normal, and zinc and copper about half, it is not. surprising that there should be an unusual amount of unemployment amongst members of our profession. This occurs, too, after a period of eight years of greatly increased cost of living, during which salaries have been increased by insignificant amounts, and often not at all.

Our Council have had this state of affairs at heart for some time, and have sought how they could best assist our members. In the first place the expenses of the Institution have been kept down as low as possible, but unfortunately it proved impossible to avoid raising the annual subscription. Next we have appealed to mining companies to do their utmost to find employment for ex-Service men, and many have done what was possible in that direction. Mining companies have, however, like the engineers, themselves been passing through bad times, and accordingly are not in a position to be benevolent. Our best hope lies in an increased demand for metals and in the meantime our Institution is endeavouring to secure such appointments as become available, for its own members.

At a stage like the present, a large Benevolent Fund would be of inestimable value. We have recently initiated one out of the balance available from the Memorial Fund, but the amount is negligible in comparison with what is needed. This nucleus, coupled with the hard times we are experiencing, should, however, impress upon our minds that when opportunity offers we should do our best to build up a fund of useful size. It has not yet been considered whether some contributing scheme might not be established, but probably a purely voluntary scheme would best suit our case

It is no doubt the wrong time to make a strong appeal on behalf of the permanent fund which has been established, but we should welcome at once even small contributions to a Relief Fund that would be immediately available for relief of any

cases of distress brought to our notice, and I may say that we have reason to suspect that many deserving cases exist. Mining engineers, perhaps more than any other class, should do what they can to help one another.

The vocation of the mining engineer, which necessitates frequent and ofttimes protracted visits abroad, does not lend itself to the making of many close friendships outside his own profession, amongst those who would be ready to give assistance in times of distress. His intimate friends consist for the most part of brother engineers; often they are away in some distant part of the world when required, and rarely are they rich, for, contrary to general opinion, few mining engineers acquire wealth. We might all at least remember the Benevolent Fund of our Institution in our wills, even if only as residuary legatec.

My last remarks have a pessimistic flavour which I would like to remove by some words of encouragement. Unfortunately I am unable to see any marked signs of improvement in the mining industry, and though I possess the glass eyes to which Shakespeare refers in King Lear," I cannot follow the advice there given, and like a scurvy politician, seem to see the things thou do'st not." Fortunately, mining engineers are by nature hopeful, and we must keep on hoping, in which we may be encouraged if we keep calling to mind. that it is almost everybody's experience that "most of their worst troubles never happened."

YTTRIUM.

BY JOHN MISSENDEN, B.Sc.

Yttrium, which has been classed in the boron group together with lanthanum and scandium, distinctly belongs to the rareearth metals both by virtue of its discovery and source. It was due to Eckeberg, who obtained the rare earth called "yttria" by separating the substance previously examined by Gadolin, that its isolation from glucina has become a possibility; although, in later years, investigation into the properties of yttria was responsible for the production of pure yttrium together with lanthanum, erbium, terbium, and didymium. Yttria itself, which may be regarded as the chief source of yttrium as its name suggests,

actually accompanies terbia, erbia, thulia, dyspresia and holmia, the metals of the last three not being quite so well-known as to warrant any description. The proportions of these latter earths are so small compared with the yttria also found, that many authorities maintain that they are contained in yttria, an assertion that can scarcely hold good in the face of later results obtained by research.

The yttrium-containing minerals (which, it is obvious, contain the other metallic earths associated with yttria) are mostly of such a form as to appear like complex salts. The silicate minerals are the most important, the basic orthosilicate of iron, beryllium and yttrium (gadolinite) being more frequent than the others. There are also the tantalates, fluorides, niobates, phosphates and uranates, the mixtures being apparent from the following table:

Silicates.

change is probably due to the energetic action of light, the darkening process being considerably retarded by preservation in a box from which all light has been excluded.

1

Cleve prepared pure yttrium by decomposing the double chloride of sodium and yttrium under the influence of an electric current, but a far more simple method is to fuse the ordinary yttrium chloride (q.v.) with an excess of sodium. The compounds, as examined, are as follows:

Yttrium Oxide, Y,O,, may be obtained by adding the pure metal to boiling water, the oxide being thrown down in the form of a white powder. It may be dissolved completely by the mineral acids, and burns with an intense white light when exposed to a flame.

With sulphur, two compounds, yttrium sulphide, YS3, and yttrium sulphate, Y(SO),.8H2O, are formed. The former is

Uranates.

Fluorides.

Niobates.

The quantities of yttrium (q.v.) obtained from two specimens are: Samarskite (mined in Raleigh, N. Carolina), 15.02 per cent., and Gadolinite (mined in Ytterby), 42.89 per cent.

As in many other cases of the more obscure elements, much diversity of opinion is held over the true atomic weight of yttrium. Hoeglund' states it to be 89.2, Bunsen's figure is 92, while Cleve fixed it at 88.4. A very careful analysis of the sulphate covering a long series of separate results, however, gives a mean of 88.1, and this determination is probably correct, previous errors being explained by the presence of minute quantities of other rare-earth metals.

The spectrum analysis of yttrium chloride is especially worthy of note. The projection shows two groups of distinct lines in the red sector that are somewhat near the sodium line but of slightly lower wave-length. Superficially, yttrium is an iron-grey powder when freshly obtained, and is apt to assume a darkish appearance when kept for an appreciable time. This phenomenon is not to be explained by the combination of the metal with oxygen, as the oxide is white, and precisely the same effect is observed when the metal is placed in vacuo. Bull. Soe. Chim. 1872 [2], XVIII., 193.

The

Samarskite. Euxenite.

2

Cerite.

produced by raising yttrium chloride to a high temperature and treating it with a stream of sulphuretted hydrogen. It is a yellow powder, insoluble in water, but soluble in mineral acids. The latter is crystalline, and may be rendered anhydrous at 120° C. An important characteristic of this salt is the fact that boiling water will yield up 47 per cent. of it, this figure being based upon 100 per cent. in solution at 15° C.

Yttrium carbonate, Y(CO,),.3H0, is soluble in water, and is a white powder with a high density. It has not been greatly examined.

There are three phosphates worthy of notice :

Yttrium orthophosphate, YPO,.2H,0; yttrium metaphosphate, Y(PO3)3; and yttrium pyrophosphate, 2YHP,0 .7H2O. The first and last are soluble, and the last insoluble, in water. The similarity in composition between the anhydrous carbonate Compt. Rend. 1882, XCV., 1125.

According to Popp, it is a grey powder, but I am inclined to think that he obtained the pure metal, probably by the presence of too much moisture. The records of his examination of this grey powder are vague, and might easily be results obtained through misunderstanding that the grey is yttrium

pure.

and the metaphosphate will be observed.

Yttrium chloride, YC,, is analagous in nearly every respect to the iodide, bromide and fluoride. Yttrium fluoride occurs in the mineral yttrocerite (Schorlemmer) mined in variousparts of North America, and presents itself in a variety of colours, such as blue, violet, and brown. It is generally associated with the fluorides of calcium and cerite.

The reactions of the yttrium salts closely resemble the reactions of the zirconium salts, a description of which may be found in my paper published on June 9th (issue No 3245) in the Chemical News.

CHEMICAL NOTICES FROM FOREIGN SOURCES

ALUThe

REACTIONS OF CAUSTIC SODA WITH MINIUM SALTS. Edouard Grobet. author has studied the effects of concentrated and dilute solutions of caustic soda upon various aluminium salts, using the method of electrical conductivities for the determination of the curves of reaction, and also the new volumetric method with the thermometer as indicator. When caustic soda is added to fairly dilute solutions of aluminium nitrate, the hydrate Al(OH),. the aluminate Al(OONa) and the aluminate Al(ONa), are formed in succession. With aluminium chloride, the sulphate and potash alum, the substances formed are Al(OH)3, then the basic aluminate Al(ONa),, Al(OH),, and the aluminate Al(ONa). With concentrated solutions of the nitrate, chloride or sulphate, the basic salt of formula AIX, Al(OH),, or Al,(Y). 2 Al(OH),, then the hydrate Al(OH),, the aluminate Al(OONa), and finally the aluminate Al(ONa), are successively formed. When concentrated solutions of potash alum are used, the compounds formed are first the basic salt Al(SO,),.2AI(OH),, then the hydrate Al(OH),, the basic aluminate Al(ONa),.-(Journal de Chimic Physique, XIX., 1921, 329.)

ENESOL.-G. Rebière. The action of sodium methyl arsinate in solution upon Oxymercuro-salicylic anhydride leads to the formation of a complex in which the molecules of the two substances are present in equal proportions. This complex contains 38.46 per cent. of "latent " mercury, and the physico-chemical study of the reaction

shows that a compound exists. The injectable solution for which the author suggested the name enesol contains 3 per cent. of this complex, i.e., 11 milligrammes of latent mercury per cubic centimeter.-(Journal de Pharmacie de Belgique, IV., 1922, 453.)

ACTION OF THIONYL CHLORIDE UPON THE & ACID ALCOHOLS.-E. E. Blaise and Mlle. Montagne. When lactic and oxyisobutyric acids are treated with thionyl chloride, the chlorosulphite of the acid is not formed, but a compound of a new type, which the authors call an anhydrosulphite of acid alcohols. The two anhydrosulphites which the authors have prepared (lactic and oxyisobutyric) are easily decomposed when heated; at about 120° to 125° under atmospheric pressure they give off sulphurous an hydride, and a polylactide is formed, from which the original acid alcohol can be obtained. The anhydrosulphites are very sensitive to the action of water, and also react with alcohols to give the ether salts of the corresponding acid alcohols with liberation of SO2, and the amides of the acid alcohols are obtained from them by the action of the arylamines. With phenyl hydrazine they give thionyl phenyl hydrazine with regeneration of the acid alcohol.-(Comptes Rendus, CLXXIV., 1922, 1553.)

CHLORHYDRINE OF MESITYL OXIDE AND ITS TRANSFORMATION INTO THE CHLORHYDRINE OF TETRAMETHYL GLYCERINE.-M. Pastureau and Henri Bernard.-The chlorhydrine of mesityl oxide can easily be obtained by fixing hypochlorous acid at the double bond of the unsaturated acetone CH,

CH

C=CH-CO-CH,, by the method.

of Baeyer, Lauch and Bamberger (action of boric acid upon calcium hypochlorite in solution). The product obtained after fractional distillation is a colourless oily liquid, something like camphor, which turns violet in the light. When a solution of it in anhydrous ether is added to methyl magnesium iodide an energetic reaction takes place which can be moderated by cooling if necessary. Thus a limpid liquid is obtained which can be decomposed by iced water in the usual way. When the ethereal liquid is fractionated in vacuo the portion which distils at 110° under 200 mm. consists of a viscous liquid which turns brown in the light, and from which crystals of the chlorhydrine of tetramethyl glycerine are deposited. -(Comptes Rendus, CLXXIV., 1922, 1555.)