described in the Analyst, 1922, page 317, was tried and found to work satisfactorily.

Some experiments were made on the adsorption of brucine sulphate from dilute aqueous solution by kieselguhr with a view to the possibility of using adsorption for the extraction of alkaloids from viscera.

was

In these experiments the brucine estimated by evaporating to dryness and weighing the residue of a measured quantity of the solution before and after adsorption, making a small allowance for the amount of soluble substances dissolved from the kieselguhr.

The estimation of brucine in dilute solution by precipitation with Dragendorff's reagent (Bismuth potassium iodide) was also tried. The amount of precipitate was estimated by means of a simple form of nephelometer. This was simply a glass rod graduated into millimetres along its stem with a short platinum wire bent at right angles to the rod at one end. It was pushed into the suspension of the precipitate holding the stem vertical till the platinum wire could no longer be seen and the length of rod immersed noted. The method was quick but only accurate to within about 10 per cent.

GENERAL ANALYSES.

The number of these analyses done during the year was 570, against 564 in 1921.

The Customs department sent 144, of which 50 were analyses of gold or silver thread or lametta. These frequently gave small traces of gold or silver, probably indicating they were plated with the real metals.

10

The General Hospital, Madras, sent 122 articles for analyses, of which 106 were stomach washes after test meals. Our routine in examining these is to estimate free hydrochloric acid by Buntzberg's method, total acidity by titration wih N,, soda, using phenolphhaleïn as indicator, and to test qualitatively for lactic acid by Uffelmann's method. A direct estimation of the hydrogen ion concentration would probably be of more value, and with this end in view solutions of standard P are being prepared. Whenever possible, these are prepared by two methods and the colours given by various indicators compared. A great deal of care is needed in the preparation of the standard solutions and in purifying the chemicals used to get perfect matches.

The danger of relying on the labels of bottles for more than an approximate indication of their contents was well illustrated

by the case of a bottle labelled "Pure saccharose," which was being used in the Hygiene Laboratory as a standard in work with a polarimeter. It was sent to us ber cause of the discordant results which were obtained, and on analysis was found to contain a very considerable amount of glucose.

of

The accurate determination of the den: sity is often a most useful test of purity of a liquid or a check on the determined strength of a solution. To take a specific gravity with a bottle takes a considerable time even at the temperature of the laboratory, and at any other temperature requires a carefully regulated thermostat. Most densities are given at (15° C.), and in Madras to keep a thermostat at a temperaure lower than about 30° C. would require prohibitive quantities of ice. An investigation was therefore made into the accuracy obtainable with an ordinary Westphall's balance and some previous calibrations of one of our balances carefully revised. The reading of the balance can be made very quickly and with a liquid which is changing in temperature fairly rapidly a series readings can be taken, the mean of which should be reliable to within + 0.0003. Some experiments have been made during the year, as time could be found for them, to see if a more useful test for the purity of chloroform could not be devised using this instrument, than the present B.P. test of taking the specific gravity at 15° C. B.P. chloroform contains a small quantity of alcohol as a preservative. It was considered that if this alcohol were removed and the density determined before and after removal this might afford a measure of both the amount of added alcohol and the purity of the residual chloroform. The alcohol can be easily extracted from chloroform by washing it with water. Five washings with a bulk of water equal to that of the chloroform each time are sufficient. The density of the chloroform may be determined wet and a small allowance made for the wetness. Experiments to determine the changes in density produced by water, alcohol and temperature are still going on.

We were consulted about a "disease" developed by some mercury used in a lighthouse to float the revolving part of the lamp so as to make it turn easily. A sample of the diseased mercury showed that it had become partly converted into a grey viscid, slimy substance. On examination it turned out to be an emulsion of mercury and oil,

of such a consistency as to effectually clog almost any mechanism.

On another occasion we were asked to match a special lubricating oil for an electric machine used at the Ophthalmic Hospital, Madras. We obtained two lubricating oils, one slightly more viscid and one rather less viscid than the sample, and by testing the viscosity of mixtures of the two found the proportion in which they had to be mixed to match the sample as regards viscosity. The difficulty in this case was that only about 2 cc.'s of the sample were available, so that the ordinary types of viscosimeter (except Ostwald's which we did not then possess) were inapplicable. The viscosities were measured by noting the times taken for 0.5 cc. of the oil to run out of a 1 cc. pipette graduated into 1/100ths. We could not match both the viscosity and the density, so we recommended a mixture which made the viscosity right, and I understand that machine has been running well on our mixture since.

PROCEEDINGS AND NOTICES OF SOCIETIES.

THE ROYAL SOCIETY.

THURSDAY, JUNE 28.

Papers read:

V. H. BLACKMAN, F.R.S., A. T. LEGG, and F. A. GREGORY. The Effect of a Direct Electric Current of very Low Intensity on the Rate of Growth of the Coleoptile of Barley.

or

The coleoptile (sheathed plumule young stem) of barley seedlings are exposed to an electric discharge from a point charged positively to about 10,000 volts (crest value) and placed at such a height above the coleoptile that a current of 0.5 x 10-10 amp. passes through it, the current density being 4 × 10-9 amp. per cm.2 Under these conditions the rate of growth is markedly accelerated from the first hour onward, showing in the third hour a percentage increase above that of the control plants of 7.53 + 1.95.

After the cessation of the current a wellmarked "after-effect," greater than the direct effect, is to be observed, the enhanced rate of growth steadily continuing and showing a percentage increase of 15.68

+ 2.62 above that of the controls. The after-effect is greater with a short period of discharge of one hour than with a longer period of three hours.

When the point is negatively charged the rate of growth is increased during the first hour, but the increase, instead of becoming greater with time, as with a current in the other direction, becomes less. An aftereffect follows here also, but it is markedly less than that resulting from a positive discharge.

Experimental evidence is advanced for the view that the gaseous products of the discharge and the "electric wind" play little or no part in the stimulation of growth observed. The current alone appears to be of importance, a view which is supported by the fact that its direction exerts such a marked influence on the degree of stimulation.

M. S. PEMBREY, F.R.S., N. W. MACKEITH, W. R. SPURRELL, E. C. WARner, and H. J. WESTLAKE. Observations on the Adjustment of the Human Body to Muscular Work.

Papers read in title only:

MISS R. M. TUPPER-CAREY and J. H. PRIESTLEY. The Composition of the Cell Wall at the Apical Meristem of Stem and Root. Communicated by Dr. F. F. Blackman, F.R.S.

The walls of the apical meristem of stem and root differ in the case with which cellulose may be detected in them with iodine reagents. As the result of macro-chemical and micro-chemical experiment it is conIcluded that the cellulose in the wall of the root meristem is masked by its combination with other substances, particularly proteins and fatty acids. In the shoot meristem the cellulose is closely linked with larger quantities of pectin but less protein and fatty acid are present, especially when the shoot is growing in the light. These conclusions seem to throw further light upon the comparative difficulty with which diffusion appears to take place through the apical meristem of the root compared with that of the shoot.

F. A. E. CREW. Studies in Intersexuality.-II. Sex-reversal in the Fowl. Communicated by Prof. R. C. Punnett, F.R.S.

W. FINKLER. Analytical Studies on the Factors causing the Sexual Display in the Mountain Newt (Triton alpestris). Communicated by Prof. E. W. MacBride, F.R.S.

G. A. SCHOTT, F.R.S. On the Scattering of X- and y-Rays by Rings of Electrons.The Effect of Damping of the Incident Radiation.

The object of the investigation is to examine the effect of the damping of incident X- and y-rays on their scattering by revolving rings of electron, with the view of determining whether the diminution of the total scattering observed by Ishino for aluminium, iron and lead can be attributed wholly or partly to this cause. Damping of the usual type, of an amount compatible with the production of moderately sharp lines in the X-ray spectrum, is found to increase slightly the total scattering of short waves, such as the hard y-rays used by Ishino, although it decreases slightly that of long waves. A single electron ring. however, such as we postulate in hydrogen and ionised helium on Bohr's theory, is completely unaffected by this type of damping. It is hardly possible that damping can diminish the total scattering for any type of atom below the amount required by the Simple Fulse Theory, certainly not to the extent required by the experiments of Ishino and the more recent ones of A. H. Compton.

P. A. MACMAHON, F.R.S. On a Class of Transcendents of which the Bessel Functions are a Particular Case.

field with a larger area of approximately equal brightness.

G. P. THOMSON. Test of a Theory of Radiation. Communicated by Sir Joseph Thomson, F.R.S.

Experiments are described with positive rays which show that visual and photographic effects can be obtained with trains of waves shorter than those produced in the emission of a quantum of light.

A. LL. HUGHES and P. LowE. Intensities in the Helium Spectrum. Communicated by Prof. H. A. Wilson, F.R.S.

The distribution in intensities in the helium spectrum, when excited by impacts between electrons and atoms, has been studied as a function of the energy of impact of the electrons, all other variables being held constant. The energy of impact varied from 34 volts to 210 volts.

The

The outstanding result of the work is that the curve showing the intensity of any spectrum line as a function of the energy of impact is characteristic of the series to which it belongs. The intensities in the Doublet. System all decrease rapidly as the energy of impact is increased from 34 volts. rate of decrease is greatest for 1-mo and least for 1-md. The Principal Series, 1S -mP, of the Singlet System is characterised by a very great increase in intensity as the energy of impact is increased from 34 volts up to about 80 volts, beyond which there is little change. The lines of the Diffuse Series, 1P-mD, all show a maximum at about 75 volts, the rise to maximum being progressively greater the higher the term number of the line. The lines of the Sharp Series, 1P-mS, after a small initial rise to 60 volts decrease slightly.

A. A. DEE. The Effect of Quenching from above the Carbide Transition Temperature upon the Magnetism of Steel. Communi

cated by Prof. S. W. J. Smith, F.R.S.

The first accurate determination of a transition point in iron carbide at which the ferromagnetism disappears during heating. in a similar way to that of iron at the critical temperature of the latter, was made by S. W. J. Smith in 1912. It has recently been suggested by Thompson and Whitehead that this carbide transition, described as from a to B cementite, is such that the carbide can be retained in the B condition by quenching from above the transition.

temperature. The experiments described in the present paper show that the magnetism of steel at ordinary temperatures is not materially altered by quenching of the kind above described and, therefore, that the return of the carbide to the ferromagnetic state is not retarded by sudden cooling from above the transition temperature.

T. S. P. STRANGEWAYS and H. E. H. OAKLEY. The Immediate Changes observed in Tissue Cells after Exposure to Soft XRays while growing in vitro." Commu

nicated by W. B. Hardy, Sec. R.S.

Tissue cultures in vitro were exposed to soft X-rays for gradually increasing periods, varying from 5 minutes to 2 hours.

Four cultures were exposed at a time: two of these were stained immediately, and two after being returned to the incubator for 80 minutes. It was found:

(1) That there was a latent period of about 15 to 20 minutes before the changes produced in the cells by irradiation can be recognised.

(2) That after 5 minutes irradiation development of new dividing cells was lessened. After exposure of 20 minutes or longer the formation of new dividing cells practically ceased.

(3) After exposure of 5 minutes granular changes and fragmentation of the chromosomes were observed in some cells in mitosis at metaphase and anaphase. After 15 minutes' irradiation the majority of cells in mitosis showed these changes, and also a definite lag in the passage of some chromosomes to the poles of the spindle, and often a definite lag in celldivision itself, but in spite of these changes in the chromosomes many, if not the majority, of the cells passed through the various phases of mitosis and completed division. After the longer exposures, however, some of the resulting daughter-cells showed abnormality.

(4) After exposure of 25 minutes or longer some cells in mitosis showed clumping of the chromosomes at metaphase.

(5) As time of exposure increased there was increase in size and alteration in structure of cytoplasm, nucleus and nucleolus of some fully formed cells.

(6) After an exposure of 60 minutes or longer, definite changes occurred in cytoplasm, nucleus and nucleolus of some cells. These affected cells became disorganised and showed irregular and vary

ADDRESS BY W. H. CASMEY, C.E., AT
WAKEFIELD, JUNE 25.

Had I the qualifications of an artist instead of being a critic of smoky chimneys, I should paint three historical pictures which would have no equal in the National Gallery, and the subjects would be:

First picture, entitled The Birth of Power 687, and would indicate a tall, monkish figure, with a basket of blackberries on one arm and a lump of coal under the other.

The second picture would show a finely built, solid-looking Yorkshireman, gazing at a smoky chimney, and the title would be Green's Common Sense, 1845.

My third artistic effort would show a big pile of coals, on which would appear in white letters, Thirteen hundred million tons," and above would be a dense mass of black clouds, and this should have the title of Coals, Clouds, and Wastage, 1923.

The first picture would represent the Monk of Glastonbury Monastery, who, whilst gathering blackberries in an old quarry in the year 687, came across an outcrop of coal, and, not having seen what he terms "black stone" before, took a piece for the inspection of the prior, and he, after examination, considered it of no consequence, and told his man to throw it on to the fire. Wood was the only fuel then used.

The black stone, helped by the wood fire, soon made the principal of the Monastery interested, and from this time, coal was the only fuel used there, and the secret of its heating power was kept for over 100 years, and was then shared with a monastery in Northumberland, and it is probably due to this that Newcastle coals were so much in demand in the south two or three centuries later.

If we now make a leap forward of 1,000 years, we are in the company of James

Watt and others in Cornwall, and see their efforts in constructing a steam generator, which finally developed into the Cornish boiler.

Another stride of 50 years, and we reach 1800, in which year the first steam mill in Bradford was started, the engine of which developed 15 horse power.

Mr. Ed. Green, of Wakefield, recognising the huge wastage of coal from steam boilers, conceived the idea of building up a business by utilising the waste heat for heating the water before passing it into the boiler, and this invention, the Green's Economiser, is now a household word wherever steam boilers are in use, and for many years may be considered as having saved steam users eight to ten million tons of coal per year.

Mr. Brownlie, in his tests of 1,000 boilers, found the average overall efficiency was 60 per cent., the maximum being over 80 per cent., the minimum under 50 per

cent. Now, is there any reason in allowing such conditions? Twenty-two boilers out of 1,000 boilers giving over 80 per cent., and others 30 per cent. lower; in other words, 14s. worth of coal in one case doing the work of 20s. in another.

Let us look at the subject more closely, and we find the average CO2 readings were 7 per cent.; this indicates 33 lbs. of air per lb. of coal, and if the calorific value of the coal averaged 12,500 B.Th. U.s, the average furnace temperature would be 1,506 degrees.

By decreasing the air supply to 18 lbs. of coal, the CO, readings will be 13 per cent. and the furnace temperature 2,797 degrees, a difference of 1,291 degrees by reducing the air supply per lb. of coal from 33 lbs. to 18 lbs. A difference of 1 per cent. CO2 shows an average difference in furnace temperature of 215 degrees. The actual figures per 1 per cent. CO2 are as follows:

8 p.c.

་་

9 p.c.

10 p.c.

11 p.c.

12 p.c.

13 p.c.

If a fire is at its best and part of the load is taken off, the present-day practice is to lower the damper and so minimise the rate of combustion, but the effect is serious from an economical point of view, as the heat of the fire rushes into the boiler due to the lower temperature of the latter, and thus reduces quickly the temperature of the fires, so that when the load is put on again comparatively cold fires are are found, and these, when stoked, being below the gas ignition point, give off black smoke. Three minutes' smoke wastes 1 per cent. of the coal used per hour.

During my series of lectures in Wakefield, I suggested to the audience one night that a present-day need in the direction of economy was a movable bridge for the furnaces, to enable the quality of combustion to be maintained, so that the length of the fires could be kept suitable to the steam demands, and one of the class tackled the subject, and a model of his now patented device is here for your inspection.

In another invention of recent date for tank boilers, the details of construction I

am not yet conversant with, but the fact of heating the air before it enters the furnace must of necessity be an economy, and one of the best aids in preventing the formation of smoke.

For many years I have studied the problem, why a tank boiler was so inefficient, as in some cases we have seen the boiler is practically dependent on the economiser. Especially does this happen when the air supply is much too high and more so when the coals used have a big proportion of hydrocarbons (gas).

In an attempt to assist in the direction indicated, a patent has recently been taken out for fitting up a furnace in such a way that a big proportion of the convected heat is transformed to radiant heat, and by this arrangement I think the actual boiler efficiency can be increased 8 per cent. or ten per cent.

It may interest many here to know that 27 years ago, Mr. Michael Longridge carried out some tests with a 30' 0" x 8' 6" Lancashire boiler, and by reducing the grate area from 42 to 35 sq. ft. when burn