Deduction 6. The fourth observation evidently contains the fundamental and uniform connection, which has been proved to exist between the atomic number of an element and its dominant isotope, for there is no other uniform arrangement of whole numbers possible; and this is especially suitable, since it is known that one electropositive force emanates from a mass of 1(1.008), also one from a mass of 3(H), also two from 4(He).

OBSERVATION 6.

If helium, with its two electro-positive forces, could be given off from the heptad Cl (35), a pentad would be left with atomic weight 31. The pentad P has at. wt. 31.

If helium were given off from the pentad P, there would be left a triad with at. wt. 27. The triad Al has at. wt. 27.

If helium were given off from the triad Al, a monad would remain of mass 23. The monad Na has at. wt. 23.

If helium were given off from the hexad S (32), there would be left a tetrad of mass 28. The dominant isotope of the tetrad Si has mass 28.

If helium were given off from the tetrad Si (28), a dyad of mass 24 would remain. The dominant isotope of the dyad Mg has mass 24.

If helium were given off from the dominant isotope (11) of B, a monad of mass 7 would be left. The dominant isotope of the monad Li has mass 7.

OBSERVATION 7.

In all the above six examples, which are exact, the element which is supposed to be disintegrated has 2, 4, or 6 electro-positive valences, which always act in pairs, and which cause these elements to be classed as non-metallic.

The discovery involved in the last two observations was first published in an advertisement in Nature on June 14, 1906, long before chemists admitted that the atomic weights were whole numbers, or that the elements could be disintegrated, also several years before it was known that helium two possessed electro-positive valences. This new chemical law was worded as follows: "The non-metallic nature of an element is always due to a pair or pairs of electro-positive forces, each pair emanating from a portion of the element of which the mass is 4, taking the mass of an atom of hydrogen as unity."

If any chemist were asked to name three elements which are especially similar to one another, considering only the 33 given in the International Table of Isotopes, there is not much doubt that he would choose It either Cl, Br and I, or K, Rb and Cs. was shown in The Chemical News, Jan. 16, 1914, and Oct. 1, 1920, that Na (23) takes a prominent part in the formation of all elements of greater atomic weight than itself. This was done at a time when chemiists objected to the mathematical proof that the atomic weights were whole numbers; but now that this difficulty has been almost entirely removed, the demonstration of the matter is much simplified.

All these observations are matters of fact. There is no hypothesis, speculation, or guesswork involved in them. Also there is no arbitrary choice of facts; for all available data are employed, whether favourable or unfavourable.

There can be no valid objection to exceptions to general rules with respect to the structure of the elements, for there is no reason why all elements should be built up in exactly the same manner.

When a state of affairs has been proved to be due to cause and not to chance, it is evident that no future discoveries or additions to knowledge (such as isotopes, e.g.) can ever contradict the general truth obtained, for it is impossible for scientists to a state of affairs unconsciously evolve which can be proved to be due to cause and not to chance, and yet for it not to contain an absolutely incontrovertible truth.

even

The explanation of the odd and even observations evidently is: that if an number of 3's and 1's be added together the result is even, and if an odd number of

3's and 1's be added together the result is odd.

From the above and additional observations, other deductions leading to the definite demonstration of the Constitution and Structure of the Elements were given in papers published in The Chemical News, Dec. 19 and 26, 1919, April 9, June 4, Oct. 1 and 15, 1920, etc.

THE ANNUAL MEETING OF THE ASSOCIATION OF BRITISH CHEMICAL MANUFACTURERS.

The Seventh Annual General Meeting of the Association was held at the Chemical Society's rooms on July 12. Sir Max Muspratt, Bart., Chairman of the Association, presided.

In proposing That the report and accounts of the Association be and they are hereby adopted," the Chairman said the Association's sphere of usefulness is constantly increasing.

In spite of being chemical manufacturers, we have in recent years somewhat overcome the modesty of previous eras of chemical industry, and we believe that we have a message of a two-fold nature to give to the nation. We have a duty to perform in instructing Ministers and other members of the Government and the Civil Service as to what they ought to know about this most important industry. We have also to impress upon the nation at large that in Great Britain the chemical industry is a very important national asset, and, like every other important national asset, it has to go forward or go back. We intend, by every means in our power, to further the progress of this industry.

The British Industries Fair of 1923 is dealt with in the report, but I might accentuate the fact that in the British Industries Fair, both this year and on previous occasions, we have tried to carry out the policy of showing the close interlocking of the various branches of the chemical industry, and I believe at the recent British Industries Fair we carried that out to no small extent. The British Industries Fair is, we hope, an annual factor, but next year when the British Empire Exhibition also takes place, we felt that it would be calling too much upon our members to make an adequate chemical section on both those occa

sions, and so we are not taking part in the Fair of next year. In the British Empire Exhibition of 1924 we are taking a very great part. We intend the Chemical Section of the British Empire Exhibition to be a complete survey of Britain's services to chemistry, from the smallest chemical manufacturer to the most brilliant and epoch-making discovery by scientific men in chemistry. It will be one of the most com. plete exhibitions of chemistry in its broadest sense that has ever been brought before the British public-greater than has been presented anywhere before. When I tell you that the Royal Society is going to take part in an exhibition, I think you will admit that we are bringing even the academic section of chemistry into the services of mankind and the Empire. The Chemical Society is, of course, assisting us; the Society of Chemical Industry; the Society of Petroleum Technologists; the Pharmaceutical Society; the Society of Dyers and Colourists are all assisting, and, from the Royal Society, Sir Herbert Jackson liaison officer in conjunction with our General Manager, to see that the most complete linking up in absolute harmony of every aspect of chemistry is duly and properly carried out at the British Empire. Exhibition next year.

is

With regard to the Continental situation, I believe that a few words will be said about that in another place to-day, and by one (the Prime Minister), who was a guest at our dinner last year. I need only deal with it purely from the aspect of chemical industry. The whole position of the Ruhr is one which the chemical industry, especially the fine chemicals and the dyestuff branches of the industry, has to look upon with great apprehension. There are superficial advantages in having competitors closed, but I am sure that nobody with the broad training of a chemist will for a moment take that aspect. On the purely material side, it is even better to have the chemicals in the hands of a competitive manufacturer than to have them in the hands of an irresponsible Government Department, and when that irresponsible Government Department is not even in this country, I need hardly say that what is going to happen to those dyes and other chemicals which have been taken by the French Government is causing grave doubt and grave uneasiness in the minds of everyone connected with the

Council of the Association of British Chemical Manufacturers.

I will not elaborate the paragraph in which the Dyestuffs Act is dealt with except to refer to the agitation for the repeal of that Act, and to ask if the real trouble of the textile industry is not the high price of cotton. I know I am speaking for everyone occupied with the heavy chemical industry in assuring him and his colleagues in other branches of the dye industry that the heavy chemical industry does desire to assist and co-operate with them in every possible way.

It

Turning to the question of alcohol, which has been discussed for years, and especially for months past, I should like to say how deeply we are indebted to Mr. Carr for the way in which he has handled this problem in conjunction with the Committee. would be absolutely invidious to mention names, but I know that everyone of you will wish to add in your vote on this written report a vote of appreciation to the able staff who manage our affairs.

Mr. R. G. Perry, C.B.E., in the absence, owing to illness, of the Vice-Chairman, Sir William Pearce, seconded the resolution. He said there was only one point to which he would like to refer. It was the paragraph in the report which read: "The Council records with satisfaction and appreciation the honour which has been conferred by His Majesty the King upon its Chairman, Sir Max Muspratt, Bart." They all wished to congratulate their Chairman upon that honour. They were all quite sure that never had an honour fallen upon more worthy shoulders, and never would honour be more worthily borne.

an

The Treasurer (Mr. C. A. Hill), in commenting on the accounts, said that, in case it should be thought they were working on too narrow a margin, he would like to put forward the view that that was a matter for congratulation to the administrative staff who were responsible for the working of the Association.

Mr. A. T. Smith said there was one mat ter of which they should make a special note, and that was the remarkable result which has followed their efforts as an association to better the chemical trade. They had one very particular instance to record, and it arose from the speech by Sir William Alexander, as Chairman of the British Dyestuffs Corporation. He (Mr. Smith) did not pretend that the results were due to the

efforts of the Association, but he did say that the fact that the Association lived and existed and did co-operate and help in every possible way, must have been of the utmost assistance to Sir William Alexander in the very arduous work he had undertaken. He might be perfectly certain, as far as the heavy chemical industry was concerned. that he would have the same co-operation in the future as he has had in the past, and he hoped the results would be quite as good.

Dr. E. F. Armstrong, F.R.S., said that the Association had certainly done well during the year, but it was desirable that chemical industry should try to stand on its own feet. He did not mean to criticise the policy of the Association in the past. Sir William Alexander, in the few words which he addressed to the shareholders of the British Dyestuffs Corporation, mentioned that a sum of £400,000 had been spent on research. The fact that it has been spent showed that one firm in this country realised the enormous importance of making itself strong on the scientific side as a preliminary to its success financially. It was only by research and by its technical work that they could get an advantage in the future. Whatever the Association did as its primary object, in the representation of the chemical industry as a whole, the Government must never lose sight of its secondary object, namely, the encouragement, first to co-operation, because that is the secret to other things, as Mr. Smith had indicated; and secondly, the encouragement of technical progress within their industry.

Sir William Alexander, K.B.E., C.B.. C.M.G., D.S.O., said his company had received from the large members of the heavy chemical industry in recent times very real and concrete assistance in bringing down the prices of their products. In every case where it had been at all possible for them to meet the company they had done so, and in every case where it has been possible for the company to pay a higher price, they had paid it. He felt certain that their industry was going to pull through. He hoped that their industry would be of assistance to the other large industries which were embraced in the Association of British Chemical Manufacturers, and that as time went on they would find that they merited the confidence which was being placed in them.

The Rt. Hon. J. W. Wilson alluded to the last two paragraphs in the report with regard to transport.

re

Mr. F. H. Carr, C.B.E., F.I.C., referred to the alcohol question. The importance of alcohol to the fine chemical industry had perhaps never been stated, and yet he thought that chemical manufacturers and fine chemical manufacturers in particular were coming to realise that it was a substance, as a chemical, which they could use, whereas hitherto it has always been garded as a substance which was beyond their reach. Many still believed that the chief use of alcohol was as a beverage. Chemists and Americans did not believe that. It was the raw material, the coal tar, of the pharmaceutical chemical. The ethyl group entered into a large proportion of the synthetic compounds used in medicine, and hitherto the manufacture of such compounds had been practically impossible owing to the difficulties which had been met with in the early stages of manufacture in getting satisfactory arrangements with the Excise Authorities. The work that had been done by the Committee had only been possible because of an entirely new state of affairs at the Board of Customs and Excise, and it was to such people as Sir Horace Hamilton and Sir Robert Robertson that their thanks must be chiefly given. had in the concessions which they had given shown that we are at the dawn of a new era as regards the use of alcohol in chemical manufacture. The concessions which had been made permitted manufacturers who are commencing to use alcohol to use quantities up to 100 gallons without any restrictions as regards their receivers without the necessity of an officer being on the spot; and provided adequate figures were shown as regards the destination of the alcohol that was being used, they were quite satisfied to leave it with fairly moderate restrictions. He urged all those interested in fine chemical manufacture to make use of these privileges and to lay before the Association such difficulties as they might meet with in order that the Committee might go on with this work until they got every possible facility required for their manufacture.

They

Mr. Kenneth Chance, M.A., associated himself with the remarks of Mr. Wilson as to the question of transport.

Mr. E. V. Evans, O.B.E., F.I.C., expressed on behalf of the Society of Chemi

cal Industry its appreciation of the help and contributions made by the Association to its Journal.

66

Dr. H. Levinstein, M.Sc., referred to a sentence in the report stating: The Council has been asked, and has agreed, to organise the Chemical Section of the Exhibition to be held at Wembley next year.' That was a remarkable testimony to the Association. The mere fact that when they had a British Empire Exhibition the whole of the chemical exhibit could be dealt with by one organisation of this kind showed what an enormous stride the chemical industry had made in organisation since the last exhibition of the same kind was held. He had not the slightest doubt that this chemical exhibit would make the same impression on chemists visiting the British Empire Exhibition as the wonderful exhibit shown by the Germans in Paris in the year 1900, which no doubt many of them remembered.

Mr. Bernard Hickson endorsed the remarks with regard to transport.

Mr. T. D. Morson said that as a backbencher he hoped that publicity would remain in the fore-front of the policy of the Association.

The Chairman, having briefly replied, then put the motion to the meeting, and declared the report and accounts unanimously adopted.

The Ordinary Meeting was followed by a Special General Meeting, when the amount of the annual subscription payable by members of the Association for the year 19231924 was fixed at four-fiths of the sums laid down in Article 17 of the Articles of Association.

Sir John Brunner, Bart., proposed, and Mr. R. G. Perry, O.B.E., seconded, a vote of thanks to the Chairman, which was carried unanimously, and the proceedings then terminated.

THE SEPARATION AND DETERMINATION OF SODIUM AND LITHIUM BY PRECIPITATION FROM ALCOHOLIC PERCHLORATE SOLUTION.1 By H. H. WILLARD AND G. FREDERICK SMITH.

[Contribution from the Chemical Laboratories of the University of Michigan and the University of Illinois.] (Continued from Page 43.) It was found to be sufficiently close to a straight line function so that values be

These values were obtained by using a pycnometer and thermostat and refer to 25°/4° corrected to vacuum. The hydrochloric acid was determined by titration with standard alkali.

The factors in the order of their importance are: (1) temperature of precipitation; (2) concentration of hydrochloric acid, giving minimum solubility of of sodium chloride; (3) conditions favouring ease of filtration; (4) prerequisites or drying and ignition of the sodium chloride obtained; (5) physical constants of butyl alcohol used in the method; (6) treatment of filtrates from sodium chloride for recovery of lithium. These factors will be taken up in the order given.

Temperature of Precipitation.-Sodium chloride precipitated from boiling solutions of sodium perchlorate in butyl alcohol when filtered on asbestos, washed, and dried at 250, for a long time, is perfectly white, but upon ignition to 500-600° it becomes dark grey, and when then dissolved in water a black deposit of carbon is obtained.

This

results from occlusion of solvent in the precipitated sodium chloride. The error in weight of the precipitated sodium chloride, due to this cause, is variable and too large

1 The work done in connection with this paper was suggested by H. H. Willard, and the preliminary work was carried out at the University of Michigan. The final work was done at the University of Illinois.

to be neglected. Precipitation at room temperature gave a similar result, but much less carbon was obtained. Wash solutions such as acetone, ether and carbon tetrachloride, are incapable of removing the occluded solvent from the precipitate. Ignition of the sodium chloride containing carbon in a stream of oxygen did not remove the impurity. The lower the temperature of the solution from which sodium chloride is precipitated, the less the tendency it shows to occlude solvent. When precipitated at -15° to -20° the dried and ignited salt contains no carbon but is pure sodium chloride.

Effect of Acid Concentration Upon the Solubility of Sodium Chloride.-Solutions of sodium perchlorate of known content were precipitated by the addition of butyl alcohol containing 20 per cent. of hydrogen chloride. A definite excess of hydrogen chloride was then added over that required for precipitation. After being heated to boiling, the precipitated samples were cooled to room temperature, filtered through asbestos, and washed with solutions of hydrogen chloride in butyl alcohol o the same strength as those from which the sodium chloride was precipitated. The precipitate was dried at 250°, ignited at 500600° and the sodium chloride found, corrected for its carbon content, was compared with the amount present. The concentration of hydrogen chloride was gradually increased, until at 6 per cent. to 7 per cent. the solubility of sodium chloride reached a minimum of 0.6 mg. per 100 cc. This excess of hydrogen chloride can be obtained closely enough by adding to the solution of the perchlorate half as many cc. of 20 per cent. solution of hydrogen chloride in buty! alcohol, as there are grams of the solution. The wash solution is made in the same way.

The solubilities of the various salts involved are shown in the following tables: