133 Osseous System—Essay V. Her countenance retained the freshness of life, and a contraction of the limbs alone shewed that her form was inanimate. Seated on the floor was the corpse of an apparently young man holding a steel in one hand and a flint in the other, as if in the act of striking fire upon some tinder which lay beside him. In the fore-part of the vessel several sailors were found dead in the births, and the body of a dog was crouched at the bottom of the gangway stairs. Neither provisions nor fuel could be discovered any where; but Captain Warrens was prevented, by the superstitious prejudices of his seamen, from examining the vessel as minutely as he wished to have done. He therefore carried away the log-book already mentioned, and returned to his own ship, and immediately steered to the southward, deeply impressed with the awful example which he had just witnessed, of the danger of navigating the polar seas, in high northern latitudes. 134 acetabulum, or cup of the pelvis, for the reception of the head of the thigh-bone, is deep, and encircled by an elevated ridge, which forms its margin. This conformation gives an evident security to the joint, which is increased by a strong ligamentous cord, arising from the bottom of the socket, and inserted into the ball so as to retain it closely in its place, without any impediment to its motion. Although this is the example of a ball-and-socket joint, and consequently endowed with great liberty of motion, yet being a joint destined to bear great muscular stress, and sustain the weight of the trunk, it is not so free as that of the shoulder, which, from the laxness of its construction, is in this respect pre-eminent. On the contrary, the hip-joint is braced tightly (if we may so express it) by powerful ligaments, and the head of the thigh-bone, or femur, is implanted deeply into its socket, while at the same time, to its restriction, the mechanism of that part of the femur (or thigh-bone) immediately below the articulation, contributes also. The head of the femur is not a simple rounding of one of its extremities, as we see in the humerus, or shoulder-bone, in which a straight line passes through its head and whole length; but a ball united by a distinct neck to the bone, and making a considerable angle with it. This neck arises from a rough protuberance, termed trochanter major, and on it, when we stand erect, the stress of the body bears; hence it is liable to fracture, especially in aged persons, in whom this is frequently occasioned ME- by making a false step, so as to bring unawares the weight of the body suddenly upon it. In consequence of the relative angle which the head of the femur thus forms with the body of the bone, it must be evident that its freedom of motion must suffer restraint, the line of angle itself constituting the barrier. On returning to England, he made various inquiries respecting vessels that had disappeared in an unknown way, and, by comparing the results of these with the information which was afforded by the written documents in his possession, he ascertained the name and history of the imprisoned ship, and of her unfortunate master, and found that she had been frozen up thirteen years previous to the time of his discovering her among the ice. ESSAYS ON THE STRUCTURE AND (Continued from col. 57.) ESSAY V. HAVING in our previous essay given a general sketch of the plan upon which the moveable articulations of the skeleton are constructed, we cannot pass from this part of our subject, without bringing before the reader a few examples which tend to illustrate the observations we have made. For this purpose, we shall attend to the very important articulations of the extremities; and of these, that we may not seem tedious, select four, as exhibiting striking specimens of variety of motion, as well as of conformation, beautifully adapted to answer the end to be attained. First, then, let us turn to the hip-joint, a joint in which is exemplified that species of articulation, termed by anatomists, enarthrosis, consisting of a large spherical head fitted into a deep cavity, or socket, known by the name acetabulum. The Let us now turn to the knee :-We have an example of a simple hinge-like joint ;the thigh-bone, we observe, terminated by two condyles, and these are received into the articulating surfaces of the tibia, (or large bone of the leg,) which are but slightly depressed. The surfaces of these condyles of the femur are extensive, and so fashioned, that however great a flexure of the knee be made, these bony eminences are still in contact with the articulating depressions of the tibia. The knee-joint is secured by numerous strong ligamentsbut not by ligaments alone-we behold, as if placed before the joint for its protection, a bone somewhat heart-shaped, but having its posterior surface egularly concave, 135 Osseous System-Essay V. external being convex; this is the patella, or knee-pan. It is secured to the tibia by a very strong ligament, attached to its apex or lower portion, while into its upper part are inserted the tendons of the rectus femoris, the vastus internus, and partially of the vastus externus and crurausmuscles for extending the leg, and to which it serves the part of a pulley. But the more immediate use of the patella, is to prevent the leg from being bent forwards, in extension, or the upright position, and so giving way beneath the weight of the body, while, as the knee, from its situation, is liable to external injuries, it serves also as a shield for its safeguard. To look at the patella, we should fancy it impossible to fracture it; yet such is the power of the exterior muscles of the leg, the strength of their tendons, and of the ligament by which it is secured to the tibia, that it gives way before them all, and is frequently fractured by muscular exertion only. The knee-joint enjoys but one species of motion-the simple hinge-like-and from its mechanism it is impossible that any other can be effected.-But let us now examine the elbow, a joint enjoying a twofold motion: the hinge-like, as the knee; and also a movement partially rotatory. Three bones enter into the construction of the elbow-joint, viz. the humerus, or shoulder-bone, the radius, and the ulna, (the two bones of the fore-arm,) and it is by their arrangement and mechanism that the power of the twofold motion is pro duced. 136 of leaning upon that articulation. The olecranon not only serves for the general strength and security of the joint, and the attachment of muscles, but, as the patella in the knee, prevents, by its resistance, the possibility of the articulation being bent backwards, contrary to its natural direction. When the arm is extended, the olecranon does not present a pointed appearance, nor is it so distinctly felt, as it then is received into a depression at the back of the humerus, to which it is precisely adapted. Let us now pass on, in this slight and discursive review, to the notice of an articulation, which, in the perfection of its mechanism, is peculiar only to the human race, viz. that of the shoulder. The humerus we behold loosely connected to the articulating depression, or, as it is termed, glenoid cavity of the scapula. From the scapula arise two large processes, which overhang and protect the joint. To one of these processes the collar-bone, or clavicle, is attached, one end of it uniting also to the breast-bone, or sternum, so that it serves to keep the scapula sufficiently firm, and at proper distance from the sternum, as well as constitutes a "point d'appui," for the humerus, (or os brachii,) every impulse of which it receives. Indeed, its aid is absolutely necessary; for from its posi tion and connexion, are derived the flexibility and power which the arm so fully enjoys; consequently the presence, relative perfection, or absence, of the clavicle in the lower animals, determines at once the arrangement of the limb, the structure of its termination, (as paw, or hoof,) and so bears an evident relation to the habits and manners of the individual. The ulna is united to the humerus, conjoining with it to form a simple hinge-like articulation, endowed with a corresponding motion. To the humerus the radius is also The shoulder-joint may be termed that united, but it forms in its mode of union of enarthrosis, or a ball-and-socket articuan articulation, from which to a certain lation. The head of the humerus or os degree results the power of revolving on its brachii, however, is not separated by a disown axis. For instance, when we raise tinct neck from the body of the bone, but the hand to the shoulder, or, in other words, is rather its termination enlarged and bend the elbow, the articulations both of the rounded; nor does it fit into a deep cup, ulna and radius are brought into employ- as in the instance of the hip-joint, for the ment, for the radius being bound to the depression of the glenoid cavity is very ulna by ligaments, unites the hinge-like trifling, and although the cartilage with motion to that peculiarly its own; but which it is naturally lined, (as are all when we turn around the hand without articulating surfaces,) increases in thickness moving the elbow, the radius to which the round its edge, thereby in some degree hand is immediately attached, rotates, deepening the concavity, still at best it is while the ulna remains perfectly stationary. but shallow, presenting rather a free space, Although the elbow is not provided, as the adapted for the rotation of the head of the knee, with a moveable patella, yet it is not humerus, than constituting a socket for left destitute of what, to a great degree, strength or security in the union. This answers the same end, namely, the olecra- laxity of construction is essential to the non, a process of ulna, plainly distinguish-freedom with which it is necessary the arm able when we bend the elbow, and consti- should be endowed-which to man is so tuting the point of pressure in the attitude | highly important, and which alone is suffi 137 Astronomical Occurrences for February 1829. cient to give him an advantage over all that rank below him in the scale of creation. The ape-tribe in this, as in other anatomical respects, approach the nearest to man:-we find here a perfect clavicle, an arm free and flexible, and a hand with fingers capable of retaining and examining. To the ape-tribe succeed the squirrel, and others of the order rodentia ;-to these the cat and animals of the order feræ ;-but here the clavicle is imperfect, or cartilaginous; the arm has but a limited freedom; and this is terminated by a paw, not elaborately constructed for examining objects around, and so ascertaining their qualities, but, at most, capable only of retaining, seizing, or lacerating. To these succeed the whole race of quadrupeds; and it may be stated as a rule, that among these the articulation of the shoulder is barely analogous in its structure and design to that of man. In the first place, strength, and not freedom, is the principal end to be attained-hence, the motion is hinge-like; and in the next place, the scapula is not united by a clavicle to the sternum; for, with the arrangement of the skeleton, and the design of the whole, the clavicle here would not harmonize; therefore it is entirely absent. If, however, we pass from the lower mammalia, to the feathered tribes possessing much vigour and freedom of wing, we again find the clavicle answering the same purpose, and as needful, as in man. Having advanced thus far in our task, let us next proceed to take a general survey of the skeleton, as a whole. On a first glance at the curious framework of our bodies, we cannot but be struck with its mechanism, and the fitness and arrangement of its parts; but if we examine it more attentively, we shall find that the bones composing it are so arranged with respect to one another, that, when in their natural situation, scarcely one, if indeed one, is placed in a perpendicular bearing to another, although the fabric is so artfully constructed, that, in an erect position, "a line from their common centre of gravity falls in the middle of their common base." The result of this wise and beautiful arrangement is, an increase in the freedom and flexibility of the fabric, so that we have much greater quickness, ease, and strength, in the general movements we execute; while at the same time we can support ourselves with as much firmness as if the axis of all the bones had been a straight line perpendicular to the horizon. It is true, indeed, that 138 whenever the bones on which any part of our body is sustained, decline from a straight line, the force required in the muscles, to counteract the gravity of that part, is greater than, under different circumstances, would be needed; but, on the other hand, we find provision made accordingly, by their number or strength. So long, therefore, as we remain in the same posture, a considerable number of muscles must be in a state of contraction, which, as we know both from reason and experience, soon creates an uneasy sensation of fatigue or weariness. This is equally the case in the erect position, and although in the erect position it would not have been experienced, had the bearing of the bones to each other been perpendicular, yet more than compensation is made by advantages of the utmost importance to the wellbeing of the animal; for not to man only, but to all furnished with an articulated skeleton, does the rule apply. As this framework of the body consists of numerous distinct portions, we may very easily conceive, that a slight difference in their number, dimensions, or relative position, would,'according to circumstances, alter the general figure and outline of the whole. Thus, for example, the external forms of various animals may be very dissimilar; and yet, it will be found that the portions composing their skeletons, every where coincide with one general and fundamental plan; for in all do we find the essential parts of the skeleton, and the articulations exhibit but little variety; and however one quadruped, one bird, or one fish, may be unlike that of another species, and however these classes may differ from each other, in each and all will the skeleton exhibit the same grand and essential characteristics. ASTRONOMICAL OCCURRENCES FOR THE admirer of the celestial orbs will notice on the evening of the 1st, the planet Mars a little to the west of the spot which he occupied at the commencement of the year, but considerably removed from his position at that period with respect to the fixed stars; he is situated nearly between ε and e Piscium, and will pass them previous to his next appearance. The planet Saturn embellishes the eastern hemisphere; he is still observed receding from y and 8 Cancri. At 27 minutes past 10, Mars descends below the horizon, and Saturn is 139 Astronomical Occurrences for January 1829. the only planet above, until 26 minutes past 3 in the morning of the 2d, when the noble planet Jupiter becomes apparent to these parts of the terraqueous globe, in the constellation Scorpio; he is situated between Antares and 7 Ophiuchus, nearest the former star. At 45 minutes past 4, the Moon and Venus are in conjunction, the Moon being considerably to the north: they are both risen at 15 minutes past 6, and are noticed in the constellation of the Archer. At 26 minutes past 7, the god of day arises on our horizon, and sheds his invigorating beams over our portion of the world. At 31 minutes past 2 in the morning of the 4th, the Moon arrives at the 14th degree of Aquarius, being that part of her orbit which is between the Earth and Sun. She would in this case deprive the Earth of the light of the glorious luminary of the solar system, had she been situated in the plane of the Earth's orbit; but she is now between two and three degrees northward of it, consequently her shadow will not fall on any part of the Earth's surface. The time that has elapsed since she was in a similar situation, is 29 days, 22 hours, and 39 minutes. She is in perigee on this day, and in conjunction with Mercury at 30 minutes past 4. On the evening of the 5th, her wirelike crescent is noticed in the extreme west, and on the following evening, at a greater altitude at sun-set, gradually approaching the planet Mars, which is now noticed to the east of p Piscium. Venus crosses the ecliptic in her descending node on this day. On the 7th, the Moon crosses the ecliptic in her descending node, and in the evening is seen to the west of Mars. On the 8th, she is observed to the east of this planet; Mercury on the same day crosses the ecliptic in his ascending node. On the 10th, at 23 minutes past 7 in the evening, the lunar orb has described a quarter of her revolution; 6 days, 16 hours, and 52 minutes having elapsed since she was new, and 29 days, 12 hours, and 5 minutes, since she was in a similar part of her orbit; her situation in the zodiac is in the 21st degree of Taurus. She is noticed nightly to increase in splendour, and to direct her course through the constellations Taurus and Gemini, towards the planet Saturn. The planet Mercury is in a favourable situation for observation on the evening of the 12th, as he arrives at his greatest eastern elongation on this day, when his distance from the Sun is 18 degrees; he is in perihelio, or at his nearest distance from the Sun, on the following day: At 27 minutes 15 seconds past 4 in the morning 140 of the 14th, the first satellite of Jupiter disappears in his shadow, the planet having removed about two degrees to the eastward of his position on the 1st. On the evening of the 15th, at sun-set, the Moon is noticed to the south of the planet Saturn, and is observed gradually to approach him during the night, and until 40 minutes past 4 on the following morning, when the conjunction between these bodies takes place. At 1 hour twenty minutes later, the planet Venus passes the Georgium Sidus. At 15 minutes past 7 in the evening of the 18th, the Earth is situated between the Sun and Moon, the latter body appearing in the same part of the heavens as seen from the Sun and Earth, which is nearly the 30th degree of Leo; it is therefore evident that the inhabitants of our globe will behold its fair attendant with a full orb, but the smallest that has been noticed for some time past, as she is at her greatest distance from the Earth. The time that has elapsed since the change is 14 days, 16 hours, and 44 minutes; from her first quarter, 7 days, 23 hours, and 52 minutes; and since she was similarly situated, 29 days, 18 hours, and 58 minutes. At 24 minutes past 8 on the same evening, the Earth enters the sign Virgo, where the sun appears to enter the opposite sign Pisces; his declination at this time is 11 degrees 28 minutes south, his semidiameter 16 minutes and 12 seconds, which is 1 minute, 6 seconds, and 2 tenths, passing the meridian; and his motion through space during the period of one hour is 2 minutes, 31 seconds, and 1 tenth. Venus is visible for a short time before sun-rise on the following morning, her apparent diameter being 11 seconds, with 11 digits illuminated on her eastern circle. Mercury is stationary on this day, and Mars is observed considerably to have approached the constellation Aries, being noticed in a line with ẞ and y Arietis; he sets at 28 minutes past 10 in the evening. On the 26th, at 20 minutes past 8 in the evening, the Moon enters her last quarter, in the 7th degree of Sagittarius. The time elapsed from the change is 22 days, 17 hours, and 49 minutes; from the first quarter, 16 days and 57 minutes; from the full, 8 days, 1 hour, and 5 minutes; and from a similar position, 29 days, 14 hours, and 59 minutes. From comparing the above data, we find the longest synodic period is from change to change, and the shortest between the first quarters; the difference being 10 hours and 34 minutes. On the following morning, she is observed considerably to the north of the noble 141 A Glance at the Signs of the Times. planet Jupiter, and passes him at 7 minutes past 6. Mercury passes the sun at his inferior conjunction, on the 28th, at 15 minutes past 3 in the afternoon. A GLANCE AT THE SIGNS OF THE TIMES, [The political section of this address is entirely omitted, politics being an article in which we do not deal.-EDITOR.] THERE cannot, Gentlemen, be a more interesting task, or one worthier the attention of men of thought, than, rising and shaking ourselves from the dust of ordinary occupations, to take a brief, though steady and comprehensive glance at this strange world in which we live. Such a view is usually taken by two distinct classes of persons: those who, like fishes leaping for an instaut out of the ocean, lift their heads above the dull routine of existence, to cast merely a heavy, listless, and unprofitable stare at the great panorama of life, without an attempt at taking in the grand leading features of the scene; and those who gaze upon it with a calm and wise determination to gain some useful lesson, by comparing the past with the present aspect of things, and calculating from these the probable issues of the future, with their practical bearing on their own condition. Let us range ourselves in the latter class, and look for a moment at the stirring scenes on which we are about to enter. 142 no mood of the mind, no conjunction of circumstances, no latent manifestation of character, which has not found its way into modern poetry. It is prodigious to think of the vast mass of not merely readable, ing amid the great sea of literature. Once but admirable poetry, which is now floatit was boldly said, "All men think, but none can write poetry." Now, however, we may well nigh say, "All who think poetry, can write it." Our hearts expand, to view the gorgeous array of Byron, Wordsworth, Southey, Campbell, Scott, Montgomery, Wilson, Moore, Crabbe, Rogers, Hemans, Coleridge, Landon— and hundreds of others. Our only fear need be, that we have too much poetry; that it may go on expanding and expanding till it burst, and extending till its substance perish through attenuation. No nobleman would have his thousand acres all laid out in flowery parterres. He must have the rough, frowning, and pathless forest, with its giant limbs, gnarled trunks, and far-extending roots, as well as the plain, unadorned, but useful pasture-land. His garden is the scene for the blush and glitter of nature's more exquisite workmanship. So it is with poetry, feeling, and imagination; admirable in their place, and even useful, but no more calculated to form the staple commodity of life, than the light ornaments of a building are suitable for its foundation. Modern poetry has certainly given a very decided bias to the spirit of the age. It would seem that we are forgetting strength, in beauty; the judgment, in the I. The present may, without boasting, feelings and imagination. We carry a be called the Augustan age of literature. poetical spirit into business which can When we consider the variety, the depth, neither require nor endure it. We thrust the brilliancy, and the power, to be found its flaring bacchanalian torch into the cold in the literature of the present age, mingled, groves of Academus,-the pensive solinevertheless, with much that is worthless, tudes of history, criticism, morals, and phiwe need not fear that our fire will grow dim losophy. To them it is no ornament, no before the glorious lights of antiquity. And | handmaid,—but a mere superfluity, an possessed, indeed, of every concurrent expletive, a nuisance, an adulteration. advantage-the munificent patronage of royalty, innumerable Mecænases, the world, as far as we are concerned, lying in the rich repose of peace-the co-operation and stimulating rivalry of foreign literature and science-it would be most discreditable to the character of the age, did not literature quicken into beauty and luxuriance. Look for a moment at our poetry. There are none of nature's secret palaces, with their emerald and blossomed pillars, domes, and architraves, which have not been pictured in song, and lauded with all the lavish epithets of imaginative enthusiasm. There is no affection of the heart, The immense encouragement given to what is not inaptly called light literature, has, besides, brought into being a world of morbid and unnatural excitement, has shed a dazzling but delusive glare over the common realities of life, and excited a craving appetite for pleasures which can never be enjoyed, and are, therefore, sought for in puling sentiment, and twaddling rodomontade. Yet do we dare to call the present the Augustan age, though accompanied with so many disadvantages; and was it not so in the Roman day? We have, nevertheless, a distinguished band of those who have manfully struggled |