Parasitology
Forest Botany and

Forest Zoology

Rural Economics

PROFESSORS.

Charles Niven, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. John Alex. Mac William, M.D., F.R.S. Robert William Reid, M.D., F.R.C.S. John Arthur Thomson, M.A., LL.D. Hector Munro Macdonald,

James Hendrick, B.Sc.

O.B.E., M.A., F.R.S.

Alexander Findlay, M.A., D.Sc., Ph.D. William Grant Craib, M.A.

LECTURERS.

William Brown, M.R.C.V.S., F.R.P.S. Thos. A. W. Fulton, M.D.

Alfred Wm. Gibb, M.A., D.Sc.

Alex. R. Horne, B.Sc., A.M.I.C.E. Peter Leslie, M.A., B.Sc., B.Sc. (Agr.). Wm. J. Profeit, M.A., B.Sc. (Agr.). John Rennie, D.Sc.

Alex. S. Watt, M.A., B.Sc. (Agr.).
R. B. Forrester, M.A.

The Degrees conferred by the University are:--
Bachelor of Science in Pure Science (B.Sc.).
Bachelor of Science in Agriculture (B.Sc. Agr.)
Bachelor of Science in Forestry (B.Sc. For.).
Doctor of Science (D.Sc.).

Diplomas in Agriculture and Forestry are also granted.

The Inclusive Fee for instruction for the B.Sc. in Pure Science is 60 Guineas, payable in three annual instalments of 20 Guineas. The Degree Fee is 6 Guineas, payable 3 Guineas for the first examination and 3 Guineas for the second examination.

Practical work in agriculture is carried out in conjunction with the North of Scotland College of Agriculture, which has a demonstration estate a few miles out of Aberdeen.

A number of Bursaries and Scholarships are awarded in Pure Science and in Agriculture.

ESSEX EDUCATION COMMITTEE.

EAST ANGLIAN INSTITUTE OF AGRICULTURE CHELMSFORD.

WANTED, an ASSISTANT ANALYST

and LECTURER in AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. Salary £250 per annum rising to £300. Applications must be made in accordance with the printed Application Form which can be obtained from the undersigned. These, together with copies of three recent testimonials must reach me by Monday, September 6th, 1920.-R. M. WILSON, Principal.

TEA

THE TUTORIAL COLLEGE.

CHEMISTRY DEPARTMEN

EACHER of Chemistry required immediately. To a man with first-class qualifications a salary at the rate of £300 per annum will be given.-Write, stating qualifications and experience, THE PRINCIPAL, 30, Elmbank Crescent, Glasgow.

ROLLER MILLS (new) by BOOTH, fitted

with smooth chilled iron rolls 30in. x 12in., ditto 15in. x 8in., shaker sieve feeds, and spring adjustments. Suitable for crushing different materials. MILLSTONE HURSTS, self-contained. Iron 48in. Wood 48in. Wood 30in. Also vertical stone Mills 30in. by Blackstone, and Lister.

DISINTEGRATOR. No. 1, equal to new, fitted with finger feed. CENTRIFUGAL SIFTING MACHINES. Barrels 6ft. 8in. long x 20in. Ditto, 8ft.. 6in. long x 30in. diam., overhauled and equal to new. CYCLONE DUST COLLECTORS, different sizes 4ft. 6in. and 4ft. in stock.

TANGYE GAS ENGINE & SUCTION PLANT, 40 max. B.H.P. CROSSLEY ditto, 24 h.p.

J. BOOTH & SON, Milling Engineers, Congleton, Cheshire. Phone: 114.

FOR Sale. Small Benzol Distillation Plant,

consisting of 2 Egg-ended Stills, 19ft. 6in. x 5ft. and 17ft. 6in. x 4ft. Ein. approx.; Goose Necks and Condensing Coils; 12 Cast-iron Tanks, 12ft. x 3ft. x 3ft.; 2 Lead-lined Washers, 12ft. x 6ft. x 3ft. 6in.; 2 large Open Tanks; 2in. Douglas Pump; Petrol Engine and Pump combined; Horizontal Double-acting Pump (2-in. delivery); 50-volt Dynamo and Switchboard; Pipes, Cocks, etc. To be sold complete or separate. Inspection invited.-Apply CROWN FOUNDRY Co., Far Cotton, Northampton.

DRYERS of the Simplex, Gnome, Invicta,

National, and other Tray Dryers.-Tнos, G. MARLOW, Drying Consultant and Dessication Expert, Drying Laboratories, Oldridge Road, London, S.W.12.

CHE

HEMICAL ENGINEER wanted with knowledge of Chamber Process and manufacture of heavá Chemicals, required for the East. Salary £1,000 to £1,200 per annum. Reply to VAPURO, 127, Gray's Inn Road, W.C 1.

FOR SALE. Mixers by Werner Pfleiderer,

44 gallon capacity; steam jacketted, gunmetal and iron troughs, gunmetal blades. Hand tilting gear. ALL AS NEW. A. UNDERWOOD, 3, Queen Street, E.C.

LADY CHEMIST, B.Sc., with four years

experience of Iron and Steel analysis requires post-Box 810, c/o SCOTT & SON, 63, Ludgate Hill, London, E.C.4. Chemical News,

WANTED to Purchase.

Vols. 1 to 12. Send offers to STECHERT & Co., 2, Star
Yard, Carey Street, London, W.C.2.

CHEMICALLY PURE

TIN

CAPPER PASS & SON, Ltd.

BEDMINSTER SMELTING WORKS

BRISTOL:

THE CHEMICAL NEWS.

VOL. CXXI., No. 3150.

During the past quarter of a century great advances have been made in the science of the sea, and the aspects and prospects of sea-fisheries research have undergone changes which encourage the hope that a combination of the work now carried on by hydrographers and biologists in most civilised countries on fundamental problems of the ocean may result in a more rational exploitation and administration of the fishing industries.

FOR THE

ADVANCEMENT

OF SCIENCE.

CARDIFF, 1920.

Oceanography and the Sea-Fisheries. IT has been customary, when occasion required, for the President to offer a brief tribute to the memory of distinguished members of the Association lost to Science during the preceding year. These, for the most part, have been men of advanced years and high reputation, who had completed their life-work and served well in their day the Association and the sciences which it represents. We have this year no such losses to record. But it seems fitting on the present occasion to pause for a moment and devote a grateful thought to that glorious band of fine young men of high promise in science who in the years since our Australian meeting in 1914, gave, it may be, in brief days and months of sacrifice, greater service to humanity and the advance of civilisation than would have been possible in years of normal time and work. A few names stand out already known and highly honoured-Mosely, Jenkinson, Geoffrey Smith, Keith Lucas, Gregory, and more recently Leonard Doncaster-all grievous losses; but there are also others, younger members of our Association, who had not yet had opportunity for showing accomplished work, but who equally gave up all for a great ideal. I prefer to offer a collective rather than an individual tribute. Other young men of science will arise and carry on their work-but the gap in our ranks remains. Let their successors remember that it serves as a reminder of a great example and of high endeavour worthy of our gratitude and of permanent record in the annals of Science.

At the last Cardiff Meeting of the British Association in 1891 you had as your President the eminent astronomer Sir William Huggins, who discoursed upon the then recent discoveries of the spectroscope in relation to the chemical nature, density temperature, pressure and even the motions of the stars. From the sky to the sea is a long drop; but the sciences of both have this in common that they deal with fundamental principles and with vast numbers. Over three hundred years ago Spenser in the "Faerie Queene" compared "the seas abundant progeny" with "the starres on hy," and recent investigations show that a litre of sea-water may contain more than a hundred times as many living organisms as there are stars visible to the eye on a clear night.

And yet even at your former Cardiff Meeting thirty years ago there were at least three papers of oceanographic interest-one by Professor Osborne Reynolds on the action of waves and currents, another by Dr. H. R. Mill on seasonal variation in the temperature of lochs and estuaries, and the third by our Honorary Local Secretary for the present meeting, Dr. Evans Hoyle, on a deep-sea tow-net capable of being opened and closed under water by the electric current.

It was a notable meeting in several other respects, of which I shall merely mention two. In Section A, Sir Oliver Lodge gave the historic address in which he expounded the urgent need, in the interests of both science and the industries, of a national institution for the promotion of physical research on a large scale. Lodge's pregnant idea put forward at this Cardiff Meeting, supported and still further elaborated by Sir Douglas Galton as President of the Association at Ipswich, has since borne notable fruit in the establishment and rapid development of the National Physical Laboratory. The other outstanding event of that meeting is that you then appointed a committee of eminent geologists and naturalists to consider a project for boring through a coral reef, and that led during following years to the successive expeditions to the atoll of Funafuti in the Central Pacific, the results of which, reported upon eventually by the Royal Society were of great interest alike to geologists, biologists, and oceanographers.

Dr. Huggins, on taking the Chair in 1891, remarked that it was over thirty years since the Association had honoured Astronomy in the selection of its President. It might be said that the case of Oceanography is harder, as the Association has never had an Oceanographer as President-and the Association might well reply "Because until very recent years there has been no Oceanographer to have." If Astronomy is the oldest of the sciences, Oceanography is probably the youngest. Depending as it does upon the methods and results of other sciences, it was not until our knowledge of Physics, Chemistry, and Biology were relatively far advanced that it became possible to apply that knowledge to the investigation and explanation of the phenomena of the ocean. No one man has done more to apply such knowledge derived from various other subjects and to organise the results as a definite branch of science than the late Sir John Murray, who may therefore be regarded as the founder of modern Oceanography.

It is, to me, a matter of regret that Sir John Murray was never President of the British Association. I am revealing no secret when I tell you that he might have been. On more than one occasion he was invited by the Council to accept nomination and he declined for reasons that were good and commanded our respect. He felt that

the necessary duties of this post would interfere with what he regarded as his primary life-workoceanographical explorations already planned, and the last of which he actually carried out in the North Atlantic in 1912, when over seventy years of age, in the Norwegian steamer Michael Sars along with his friend Dr. Johan Hjort.

Anyone considering the subject-matter of this new science must be struck by its wide range overlapping as it does the borderlands of several other sciences and making use of their methods and facts in the solution of its problems. It is not only world-wide in its scope but extends beyond our globe and includes astronomical data in their relation to tidal and certain other oceanographical phenomena. No man in his work or even thought, can attempt to cover the whole ground-although Sir John Murray, in his remarkably comprehensive "Summary" volumes of the Challenger Expedition and other writings, went far towards doing so. He, in his combination of physicist, chemist, geologist, and biologist, was the nearest approach we have had to an allround Oceanographer. The International Research Council probably acted wisely at the recent Brussels Conference in recommending the institution of two International Sections in our subject, the one of physical and the other of biological Oceanography-although the two overlap and are so interdependent that no investigator on the one side can afford to neglect the other.*

On the present occasion I must restrict myself almost wholly to the latter division of the subject, and be content, after brief reference to the founders and pioneers of our science, to outline a few of those investigations and problems which have appeared to me to be of fundamental importance, of economic value, or of general interest. Although the name Oceanography was only given to this branch of science by Sir John Murray in 1880 and although according to that veteran oceanographer Mr. J. Y. Buchanan, the last surviving member of the civilian staff of the Challenger, the science of Oceanography was born at sea on February 5, 1873,† when, at the first official dredging station of the expedition, to the westward of Teneriffe, at 1525 fathoms, everything that came up in the dredge was new and led to fundamental discoveries as to the deposits forming on the floor of the ocean, still it may be claimed that the foundations of the science were laid by various explorers of the ocean at much earlier dates. Aristotle, who took all knowledge for his province, was an early oceanographer on the shores of Asia Minor. When Pytheas passed between the pillars of Hercules into the unknown *The following classification of the primary divisions of the subject may possibly be found acceptable:Physiography

Hydrography

Metabolism Bionomics Tidology (Physics, &c.) (Bio-Chemistry) (Biology) (Mathematics)

+Others might put the date later. Significant publications are Sir John Murray's Summary Volumes of the Challenger (1895), the inauguration of the "Musée Oceanographique" at Monaco in 1910, the foundation of the "Institut Oceanographique" at Paris in 1906 (see the Prince of Monacs's letter to the Minister of Public Instruction), and Sir John Murray's little book "The Ocean" (1913), where the superiority of the term Oceanography to Thalassography (used by Alexander Ågassiz) is discussed.

But

Atlantic and penetrated to British seas in the fourth century B.C., and brought back reports of Ultima Thule and of a sea to the North thick and sluggish like a jelly-fish, he may have been recording an early planktonic observation. passing over all such and many other early records of phenomena of the sea, we come to surer ground in claiming, as founders of Oceanography Count Marsili, an early investigator of the Mediterranean, and that truly scientific navigator Captain James Cook, who sailed to the South Pacific on a Transit of Venus expedition in 1769 with Sir Joseph Banks as naturalist, and by subsequently circumnavigating the South Sea about latitude 60° finally disproved the existence of a great southern continent; and Sir James Clerk Ross, who, with Sir Joseph Hooker as naturalist, first dredged the Antarctic in 1840.

The use of the naturalist's dredge (introduced by O. F. Müller, the Dane, in 1799) for exploring the sea-bottom was brought into prominence almost simultaneously in several countries of North-West Europe-by Henri Milne-Edwards in France in 1830, Michael Sars in Norway in 1835, and our own Edward Forbes about 1832.

The last-mentioned genial and many-sided genius was a notable figure in several sections of the British Association from about 1836 onwards, and may fairly be claimed as a pioneer of Oceanography. In 1839 he and his friend the anatomist, John Goodsir, were dredging in the Shetland seas with results which Forbes made known to the meeting of the British Association at Birmingham that summer, with such good effect that "Dredging Committee" of the Association was formed to continue the good work. Valuable reports on the discoveries of that Committee appear in our volumes at intervals during the subsequent twenty-five years.

a

We

It has happened over and over again in history that the British Association, by means of one of its research committees, has led the way in some important new research or development of science and has shown the Government or an industry what wants doing and how it can be done. may fairly claim that the British Association has inspired and fostered that exploration of British seas which through marine biological investigations and deep-sea expeditions has led on to modern Oceanography. Edward Forbes and the British Association Dredging Committee, Wyville Thomson, Carpenter, Gwyn Jeffreys, Norman, and other naturalists of the pre-Challenger days—all these men in the quarter-century from 1840 onwards worked under research committees of the British Association, bringing their results before sucessive meetings; and some of our older volumes enshrine classic reports on dredging by Forbes, McAndrew, Norman, Brady, Alder, and other notable naturalists of that day. These local researches paved the way for the Challenger and other national deep-sea expeditions. Here as in other cases, it required private enterprise to precede and stimulate Government action.

1" For researches with the dredge, with a view to the investigation of the marine zoology of Great Britain, the illustration of the geographical distribution of marine animals, and the more accurate determination of the fossils of the pleistocene period: under the superintendence of Mr. Gray, Mr. Forbes, Mr. Goodsir, Mr. Patterson, Mr. Thomson of Belfast, Mr. Ball of Dublin, Dr. George Johnston, Mr. Smith of Jordan Hill, and Mr. A. Strickland, £60. Report for 1839, p. 26.

27,

Forbes in these marine investigations worked at border-line problems, dealing for example with the relations of Geology to Zoology, and the effect of the past history of the land and sea upon the distribution of plants and animals at the present day, and in these respects he was an early oceanographer. For the essence of that new subject is that it also investigates border-line problems and is based upon and makes use of all the older fundamental sciences-Physics, Chemistry, and Biology-and shows for example how variations in the great ocean currents may account for the movements and abundance of the migratory fishes, and how periodic changes in the physicochemical characters of the sea, such as variations in the hydrogen-ion and hydroxyl-ion concentration, are correlated with the distribution at the different seasons of the all-important microscopic organisms that render our oceanic waters as prolific a source of food as the pastures of the land.

Another pioneer of the nineteenth century who I sometimes think, has not yet received sufficient credit for his foresight and initiative, is Sir Wyville Thomson, whose name ought to go down through the ages as the leader of the scientific staff on the famous Challenger Deep-Sea Exploring Expedition. It is due chiefly to him and to his friend Dr. W. B. Carpenter that the British Government, through the influence of the Royal Society, was induced to place at the disposal of a committee of scientific experts first the small surveying steamer Lightning in 1868, and then the more efficient steamer Porcupine in the two succeeding years, for the purpose of exploring the deep water of the Atlantic from the Faroes in the North to Gibraltar and beyond in the South, in the course of which expeditions they got successful hauls from the then unprecedented depth of 2435 fathoms, nearly three statute miles.

It will be remembered that Edward Forbes, from his observations in the Mediterranean (an abnormal sea in some respects), regarded depths of over 300 fathoms as an azoic zone. It was the work of Wyville Thomson and his colleagues Carpenter and Gwyn Jeffreys on these successive dredging expeditions to prove conclusively what was beginning to be suspected by naturalists, that there is no azoic zone in the sea, but that abundant life belonging to many groups of animals extends down to the greatest depths of from four to five thousand fathoms-nearly six statute miles from the surface.

These pioneering expeditions in the Lightning and Porcupine-the results of which are not even yet fully made known to science-were epoch

new region to the systematic marine biologist, but gave glimpses of world-wide problems in connection with the physics, the chemistry, and the biology of the sea which are only now being adequately investigated by the modern oceanographer. These results, which aroused intense interest amongst the leading scientific men of the time, were so rapidly surpassed and overshadowed by the still greater achievements of the Challenger and other national exploring expeditions that followed in the 'seventies and 'eighties of last century, that there is some danger of their real importance being lost sight of; but it ought never to be forgotten that they first demonstrated the abundance of life of a varied nature in depths formerly supposed to be azoic, and, moreover, that some of the new deep-sea animals obtained were related to extinct forms belonging to the Jurassic, Cretaceous, and Tertiary periods.

It is interesting to recall that our Association played its part in promoting the movement that led to the Challenger Expedition. Our General Committee at the Edinburgh Meeting of 1871 recommended that the President and Council be authorised to co-operate with the Royal Society in promoting "a Circumnavigation Expedition, specially fitted out to carry the Physical and Biological Exploration of the Deep Sea into all the Great Oceanic Areas"; and our Council subsequently appointed a committee consisting of Dr. Carpenter, Professor Huxley, and others to cooperate with the Royal Society in carrying out these objects.

It has been said that the Challenger Expedition will rank in history with the voyages of Vasco da Gama, Columbus, Magellan, and Cook. Like these it added new regions of the globe to our knowledge, and the wide expanses thus opened up for the first time the floors of the oceans, though less accessible, are vaster than the discoveries of any previous exploration.

Sir Wyville Thomson, although leader of the expedition, did not live to see the completed results, and Sir John Murray will be remembered in the history of science as the Challenger naturalist who brought to a successful issue the investigation of the enormous collections and the publication of the scientific results of that memorable voyage these two Scots share the honour of having guided the destinies of what is still the greatest oceanographic exploration of all times.

In addition to taking his part in the general work of the expedition, Murray devoted special attention to three subjects of primary importance in the science of the sea, viz.: (1) the plankton or floating life of the oceans; (2) the deposits forming on the sea bottoms; and (3) the origin and mode of formation of coral reefs and islands. It was characteristic of his broad and synthetic outlook on nature that, in place of working at the speciography and anatomy of some group of organisms, however novel, interesting, and attractive to the naturalist the deep-sea organisms might seem to be, he took up wide-reaching general problems with economic and geological as well as biological applications.

Each of the three main lines of investigationdeposits, plankton, and coral reefs-which Murray undertook on board the Challenger has been most fruitful of results both in his own hands and those

of others. His plankton work has led on to those modern planktonic researches which are closely bound up with the scientific investigation of our sea-fisheries.

His work on the deposits accumulating on the floors of the ocean resulted, after years of study in the laboratory as well as in the field in collaboration with the Abbé Renard of the Brussels Museum, afterwards Professor at Ghent, in the production of the monumental "Deep-Sea Deposits" volume, one of the Challenger Reports, which first revealed to the scientific world the detailed nature and distribution of the varied submarine deposits of the globe and their relation to the rocks forming the crust of the earth.

These studies led, moreover, to one of the romances of science which deeply influenced Murray's future life and work. In accumulating material from all parts of the world and all deepsea exploring expeditions for comparison with the Challenger series, some ten years later, Murray found that a sample of rock from Christmas Island in the Indian Ocean, which had been sent to him by Commander (now Admiral) Aldrich, of H.M.S. Egeria, was composed of a valuable phosphatic material. This discovery in Murray's hands gave rise to a profitable commercial undertaking, and he was able to show that some years ago the British Treasury had already received in royalties and taxes from the island considerably more than the total cost of the Challenger Expedition.

That first British circumnavigating expedition on the Challenger was followed by other national expeditions (the American Tuscarora and Albatross, the French Travailleur, the German Gauss, National and Valdivia, the Italian Vettor Pisani, the Dutch Siboga, the Danish Thor and others) and by almost equally celebrated and important work by unofficial oceanographers such as Alexander Agassiz, Sir John Murray with Dr. Hjort in the Michael Sars, and the Prince of Monaco in his magnificent ocean-going yacht, and by much other good work by many investigators in smaller and humbler vessels. One of these supplementary expeditions I must refer to briefly because of its connection with sea-fisheries. The Triton, under Tizard and Murray, in 1882, while exploring the cold and warm areas of the Faroe Channel separated by the Wyville-Thomson ridge, incidentally discovered the famous Dubh-Artach fishinggrounds, which have been worked by British trawlers ever since.

Notwithstanding all this activity during the last forty years since Oceanography became a science, much has still to be investigated in all seas in all branches of the subject. On pursuing any line of investigation one very soon comes up against a wall of the unknown or a maze of controversy. Peculiar difficulties surround the subject. The matters investigated are often remote and almost inaccessible. Unknown factors may enter into every problem. The samples required may be at the other end of a rope or a wire eight or ten miles long, and the oceanographer may have to grope for them literally in the dark and under other difficult conditions which make it uncertain whether his samples when obtained are adequate and representative, and whether they have undergone any change since leaving their natural environment. It is not surprising then that in the

August 27

progress of knowledge mistakes have been made and corrected, that views have been held on what seemed good scientific grounds which later on were proved to be erroneous. For example, Edward Forbes, in his division of life in the sea into zones on what then seemed to be sufficiently good observations in the Ægean, but which we now know to be exceptional, placed the limit of life at 300 fathoms, while Wyville Thomson and his fellow-workers on the Porcupine and the Challenger showed that there is no azoic zone even in the great abysses.

Or, again, take the celebrated myth of "Bathybius.' In the 'sixties of last century samples of Atlantic mud, taken when surveying the bottom for the first telegraph cables and preserved in alcohol, were found when examined by Huxley, Haeckel, and others to contain what seemed to be an exceedingly primitive protoplasmic organism, which was supposed on good evidence to be widely extended over the floor of the ocean. The discovery of this Bathybius was said to solve the problem of how the deep-sea animals were nourished in the absence of seaweeds. Here was a widespread protoplasmic meadow upon which other organisms could graze. Belief in Bathybius seemed to be confirmed and established by Wyville Thomson's results in the Porcupine Expedition of 1869, but was exploded by the naturalists on the Challenger some five years later. Buchanan in his recently published "Accounts Rendered" tells us how he and his colleague Murray were keenly on the look-out for hours at a time on all how they finally proved, in the spring of 1875 on possible occasions for traces of this organism, and the voyage between Hong Kong and Yokohama, that the all-pervading substance like coagulated of lime thrown down from the sea-water in the mucus was an amorphous precipitate of sulphate mud on the addition of a certain proportion of alcohol. He wrote to this effect from Japan to Professor Crum Brown, and it is in evidence that after receiving this letter Crum Brown interested his friends in Edinburgh by showing them how to make Bathybius in the chemical laboratory. Huxley at the Sheffield Meeting of the British Association in 1879 handsomely admitted that he had been mistaken, and it is said that he characterised Bathybius as "not having fulfilled the promise of its youth." Will any of our present oceanograph beliefs share the fate of Bathybius in the future? Some may, but even if they do they may well have been useful steps in the progress of science. Although like Bathybius they may not have fulfilled the promise of their youth, yet, we may add, they will not have lived in the minds of man in vain.

Many of the phenomena we encounter in oceanographic investigations are so complex, are or may be affected by so many diverse factors, that it is difficult, if indeed possible, to be sure that we are unravelling them aright and that we see the real causes of what we observe.

Some few things we know approximately— nothing completely. We know that the greatest depths of the ocean, about six miles, are a little greater than the highest mountains on land, and Sir John Murray has calculated that if all the land were washed down into the sea the whole globe would be covered by an ocean averaging