The relative volumes of Na and K have been shown to be 11.85 and 22:29, and 4× 11.85+ 22*29= 69.69. If any value but 131 be taken for the atomic weight of Cs, this exact correspondence could not take place. In order to lead up to the constitution and structure of the radio-active and certain other elements, it is necessary first of all to consider the two elements Ti and Cr more fully than in previous papers. Titanium (48) K-H-H,-H-H,-H and Mg,. Titanium is especially associated with minerals which contain much Mg, such as chrysolite, pyroxene, serpentine, amphibole, and phlogopite. Titanite is an oxide of Ca, Ti, Si. There are three crystalline minerals, all of the same composition (TiO2) viz., rutile, brookite, and octahedrite. Of course, there are other cases of trimorphism known, but this peculiarity with regard to Ti seems to be much more marked than in other elements, at any rate in mineralogy. If two atoms of Mg were to become atomised, they could form a metallic tetrad represented either by NaHNaH or HNaNaH, but they could not form the non-metallic hexadic atom which is known to exist represented by (2.672 Playfair 2505 18° Spring 2704 18° Spring 2952 Schiff 2448 Quincke 3.802 18° Clarke 4 277 175 Kremers 2.100 Schiff 2.265 Buignet (2.105 W. C. Smith 12 267 Filhol 2 407 205° Favre (2078 W. C. Smith 2012 Gmelin (2.207 Schroder 22208 15° Stolba Chromium (52) = MgSi. Chromite, an oxide of Fe and Cr, is found in large masses in serpentine, which is an oxide of Mg andSi. In addition to the sum of the atomic weights of Mg and Si being 52, the union of the dyad Mg with the non-metallic tetrad Si could produce the non-metallic hexad Cr. Palladium (104) = Cr2 = Mg2Si2=TiFe. Pd is always found with Ir, Os, Pt, Au, Cu, and chromite in the R. Pinto, Columbia, S. America. It is always associated with Pt which is found in Nishni Tagilsk with chromite in a serpentine probably derived from a peridotype; also in the sand of the R. Ivalo, N. Lapland, probably derived from a serpentine (altered peridotyte) containing chromite and diallage (pyroxene); also from R. Tayaka, New Zealand, from a region characterised by a chrysolite rock (dunyte) with serpentine. Ilmenite, an oxide of Fe, Ti, is found in serpentine. The number 106 is entirely unsuitable, whilst 104 is exactly suitable in every respect. Probably the impossibility of completely separating Pt from higher than it ought to be. Pd causes the experimental atomic weight to be Platinum (194) = ZrPd. Pt is especially found with Pd in auriferous sands, and crystals of zircon are very common in such sands. There are now four reasons why the atomic weight of Pd may be expected to be 104 instead of 106: Associated elements found in the matrix of Pd and Pt Cr2 M.Si, 104 104 Th is especially associated with Cb, Zr, and Ti in aeschynite, polymigite, pyrochlore, etc. The constitution and structure of the radioactive elements will be fully discussed in relation to the theory as a whole in the next paper, and this will, of course, involve lead, the only one of the heavier elements about which nothing has yet been said. At present the matter stands as follows: There is one and only one integer for each element in the neighbourhood of its experimental atomic weight, which is especially suitable for explaining the mineralogical and chemical facts with regard | to that element. This deduction which has been proved to be true without a doubt applies to all the elements (the twelve rare ones not being available for the investigation). The only exceptions are Gl, Br, Sr, Th, and N. The fact that Gl is apparently an exception is of no importance, because there is evidently something wrong with the data with regard to it, for it is placed in the Periodic Table as a dyad, whilst in Nature, Dec. 26, 1901, it is stated that Gl is probably a triad but the Periodic Law stands in the way. Br is an exception because there are two suitable integers 79 and 81 as previously explained. Probably they are both right as the experimental atomic weight 79'92 is about the arithmetic mean of the two. Sr has two suitable integers 86 (= Na,Ca) and 88 (CaTi), and as its atomic weight 87.63 is abnormally low considering the Odd and Even Rule, it is probable that both are correct. Th also happens to have two suitable integers, since it is especially found with Cb, Zr, Y, and Ti, CbZrTi=232 CbYTi =230 It also happens that the International Committee expect that ionium which ought to be found with Th has an atomic weight less than 232. Nitrogen is the only real exception, and there is already much experimental evidence that it is an abnormal element (CHEMICAL NEWS, July 18, 1919). Instead of tending to upset the general deduction given above with regard to the other 70 elements, it only serves to accentuate the impossibility of arriving at such a general deduction, if the facts are not really there in order to cause it. COAL ECONOMY FROM A NATIONAL STANDPOINT.* By W H. CASMEY. WE are wasting coal at the rate of over 50 million tons per year, robbing future generations of their just rights, creating conditions which minimises by two hours per day the sunshine to our cities and towns, assisting in forming our dense winter fogs with their annoyances and expenscs, increasing our death rate, and maintaining our present high cost of living, surely sufficient reasons for stamping the subject of coal economy as of national importance. In the burning of coal which contains other elements besides carbon, the average maximum percentage of CO2 is 19.2 per cent, due to the fact that all classes of coal contains hydrogen, but in variable quantities, and this gas quickly unites with some of the oxygen and forms watery vapour, leaving of course less oxygen for the carbon in the coal. With one pound of coal and 12 pounds of air, the CO, is 192 per cent, the furnace temperature 3844° As this temperature is too high for steam raising purposes, the practice by which the writer has secured the best results, is to allow 50 per cent excess air to the products of combustion, the resulting temperature being 2630°, the CO2 13 per cent. If then the CO, indicator forms, as it should do, a part of every steam plant, the economical conditions are as easily maintained, other things being equal, as the height of the water in the boilers by means of the pump and gauge glasses. In everyday practice the percentage of CO, seldom exceeds 7 per cent, and taking this figure and the same quality of coal as before, i.e., 12,000 B.Th. U. per pound, 7 per cent CO, means 33 lbs. of air per pound of coal, furnace temperature 1510° or 1120° lower, due to having 15 lbs. more excess air per pound of coal, we cannot send the heat away with excess air, and use it for steam raising. Knowing the desired conditions for burning coal more economically that at present and the immediate benefits which would follow, one can only express surprise at our general apathy; yet we should have no two opinions about a man who * A Lecture given before the Bradford Textile Society, October 25, 1920. was constantly grousing about being short of money, if we knew that of every 20/- received he at once threw 5/- away; exactly what we are doing with our coals, only in some cases what we throw away is very much in excess of 5/- in the pound. Domestic Fires. In the United Kingdom we have a little over 8 million houses, many thousands of schools, churches, and other public buildings; therefore, the 40 million tons of coal used per year for heating and cooking is well distributed, and after making due allowances for public buildings, the coal consumption per house per year is about four tons, approximately 28 lbs. per house per day. As an introduction to our Works practice, let us briefly picture the general methods prevailing in our homes. Under a mistaken idea of economy, we allow the domestic fires to burn until only a few hot cinders remain at the bottom of the grate and then dump on a shovelful of coal, which has the effect of cooling the whole fireplace a long way below the required temperature for igniting the gases, and a stream of smoke is therefore sent up the chimney and by the time the ignition point (900°) is reached, 25 per cent to 30 per cent of the heat value of the coal has escaped. Defects in Steam Boiler Plants. If we now turn to the boiler-house, we find about the same conditions as in the management of our domestic fires, and the same remedy is applicable to both, i.e., stoke when the fires are in good condition, clear and bright, and stoke lightly, thereby maintaining a sufficiently high temperature to ignite the liberated gases, which entirely prevents the production of smoke. A suitable motto for room, kitchen, or boiler-house is, "A high temperature is much easier to maintain than produce." That coal economy is to a large extent governed by the air supply is well known, but the following list also indicates leakages in the majority of our present boiler-houses through which good coal is escaping. Areas of firegrates and outlets at rear ends of furnace flues out of proportion to area and height of chimney, fires too thin, stoking at the wrong time, stoking too heavily, side dampers not airtight, coal and cinders left in ashes, drag cften used when poker would be more good, lack of draught gauges and CO, indicators, side and bottom flues too small, boilers and steam pipes not well covered, damp and dirty coal, steam jet blowers, dirty boilers inside and outside, defective circulation and delivery of feed water at the wrong place. A very interesting list of boiler defects to a nation asking for more coal, a list which has held its own or probably grown since we first commenced to use coal, and about which commissions, Royal and otherwise, have talked, talked, and talked again, but not practised, and for the cure of which hundreds of patents have been granted, the majority of which when applied do more harm than good, and yet we are wasting practically one million tons of precious coal every week, all of which can be saved by stopping the leakages enumerated, in the doing of which there is not the least difficulty. We have abundant proof that an overall efficiency of 75 per cent to 80 per cent is possible, in fact is now being secured, but in comparison there are thousands of boiler plants to-day giving less than 60 per cent, and one battery of ten boilers tested by the writer gave an overall efficiency of only 53 per cent. Mind, that figure is for boilers and economisers. Seeing it possible to secure 80 per cent in the one case, why not in all? And it is a question every engineer should ask himself, "Am I doing all I can with this plant, and if so why can others give the same weight of steam for 15 cwts. of coal as I am giving for 20 cwts.? (To be continued). PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. INSTITUTION OF PETROLEUM "Coal as a Future Source of Oil Fuel Supply." By SIR ARTHUR DUCKHAM, K.C.B. During the War I served under your President, Sir Frederick Black, and I often discussed with him the industrial future of this country. He, therefore, knew that my interests lay very largely in fuel conservation and the heat treatment of coal, and in consequence he asked me to read a paper on this subject to your Institution. Although getting on in years, I am afraid I am of a sanguine temperament and chose a special phase of this subject, i.e., the obtaining of fuel oil from coal, thinking that I could give a close approximation of the industrial value of the different processes. With this end in view, I have been making close enquiries of my technical friends, and have been diligently delving into books and pamphlets written by experts. The conclusion at which I have arrived is, that it is almost impossible to make any definite statement to-day as to the best method of treating coal to obtain the best value in oils and tars. In these circumstances, therefore, I propose to give you a general outline of the situation as I see it, and to make some suggestions as to the most probable line of development. When we look back to 1914 and compare the industrial conditions then existing with those of to-day, we are amazed. Only six years of time have elapsed since 1914, but to-day we live in a world so changed that more than a generation might have passed. In view of the great changes caused by the War, it is necessary to free one's mind from old opinions and to formulate lines of progress in accordance with the changed circumstances and altered tendencies. Preliminary Considerations. With the growth of civilisation, the needs of the community have become more and more complex. To meet these needs an improved supply of heat, light, and power has been essential. In past times, wood supplied heat, simple vegetable or animal products provided light, and power was obtained from natural forces, such as wind and water, or by human and animal effort. 224 WAY Proceedings of Societies As the need, of the community increase in geometrical and not in arithmetical progression, it soon found that these primitive sources and forms of energy were inadequate. Coal took the place of wood as the source of heat, gas distilled from coal became the source of light, and mechanical power was obtained by harnessing Steam generated in coal fired boilers. Before the attainment of a supply of mechanical power was obtained by harne sing steam generated in coal fired boilers. Before the attainment of a supply of mechanical unlimited in. quantity and power, practically application, power had been the least considered of that great industrial and domestic triumvirate heat, light and power-- but rapidly power assumed supremacy, The discovery and exploitation of the coal measures in Great Britain and the rapid application to industry of the energy so provided gave this country a tremendous start in industrial development. Other countries did not enjoy at that time so favourable a posiiton, constitutionally, North America geographically, or geologically. was naturally the country next best situated for industrial development, being lavishly favoured by Nature and freed from the continual unrest which prevented industrial development on the Continent of Europe. The discovery of mineral oil in the United States gave a fresh impetus to the production of energy. Used first as a source of heat, and so of power, through the medium of steam boilers, rapidly recognised as a lighting medium, it was only tardily realised that the products of the crude oil, used as a direct power producer in internal combustion engines, provided means of transport which have absolutely revolutionised the domestic and industrial life of the community. The possibilities of the internal combustion engine working on oil fuel have been demonstrated in the recent War, For the first time, mechanical devices have taken part in land fighting. Man is no longer the unit, but machines, approaching in potentiality the great engines of destruction used in naval warfare, have been utilised and have broken through all human resis tance. Mineral oil, first developed as a ready form of heat and light in the countries where it abounded, was soon found to be so convenient to transport, supply, and apply, that its use became universal, The internal combustion engine has now made oil supplies not only desirable, but indispensable. It has always struck me that it is an extraordinary coincidence that the source of power should also provide the source of lubrication. To-day there is a world shortage of fuel. The Wat has closed down many sources of supply. There has been an abnormal upheaval in the position of the workers; the hours of work are shotter and the output per man hour has dropped, With the growth of the population and the many needs of the community, the railways, especially about towns, have become congested, and the trathc in our streets has become a problem of great dithculty. To day the community is not obtain ing the same quantity of fuel as in pre-War days. On the other hand, the community requires a greater expenditure of energy derived from fuel per head of the population than ever before. Nov. 5, 1920 We In the past, solid fuel has been transported by rail from the pits through to works and depôts, man-handled to the stores or cellars, again manhandled to the boiler, furnace or grate, burnt wastefully, and then the ashes have had to go through the reverse process. I do not believe future that we shall be able to afford the transport facilities for moving the coal on the congested railway lines leading to large towns. We Shall have to restrict the transport of solid fuel and ashes through the congested streets. shall not be able to afford the labour required for all this work, neither shall we in future be able to obtain labour to perform the arduous work of handling solid fuel, and clearing and removing ashes from boilers, furnaces, or grates. Further, modern practice has already shown the very great advantages of oil fuel for bunkering and for stoking on board ship. Solid fuel must gradually die out for marine work. Oil fuel will take its place. Solid fuel will be displaced for locomotives and our trains will be fired with liquid fuel (and here I may say that, in liquid fuel I include a mixture of solid and liquid fuels in the state commonly known as "colloidal") so that we get a collossal and ever-increasing demand for oil fuel. Lines of Development. At the present How is this demand to be met? time there is a shortage of liquid fuel; the demand restricted by high exceeds supply and is only costs. Given a cheap supply of liquid fuel, the demand would increase many times. It is, however, not possible to think of liquid fuel as the general means of supplying heat and power. On the other hand, I think it clear that the use of solid fuel will die out under the stress of modern conditions, which demand efficiency in the use of labour and the conservation of our national asset-coal. What other sources of energy are available? Electricity has proved itself a convenient and economical method of transmitting energy for the purposes of providing light and power, and undoubtedly a cheap supply of electricty generated under economical conditions is a necessity for this country, but no one would to-day consider the generation and transmission of electrical energy for the purpose of providing heat units for general industrial and domestic needs as meeting the case. The average heat economy of electrical generation and transmission to-day does not equal 10 per cent. It is fully realised that this uneconomical figure can be greatly improved on, but it will be many years under ordinary conditions before the efficiency reaches 20 per cent. It is unthinkable to transmit heat units by a method which loses at least So per cent of the original heat in generation and transmission. There remains one other method of transmission of heat units from the coal pit, the source of the fuel supply, to the industrial or domestic user, and that is gas, and it is my belief that the industrial future of this country lies in the conversion of the coal at the pits mouth into liquid and gaseous fuels. Liquid fuel will be recognised as the medium for providing energy for all transport on land, sea, or air, with the exception of electrical transport for congested areas, while gaseous fuel will be used direct for the great majority of heating purposes and for the generation of electricity, either by means of steam plants or engines. Full experience has been gained in America of the transmission of gas over long distances, and there is no question that, starting in the big industrial districts which lie near the coalfields, gas can be supplied in sufficient quantities and can economically replace solid fuel. The supply of oil for fuel is a necessity. Our only direct source of supply, which would in any way meet requirements, is our coalfields. The late War has proved that oil is indeed the backbone of all military effort. Without oil for lubri cation, for transport, for explosives, no nation could possibly continue fighting. What was once Great Britain's strength has become to a great degree Great Britain's weakness. The submarine has become so great a danger that should another war come, it is possible this island might indeed be isolated and cut off from all outside sources of oil supply. It is therefore essential for national as well as economic necessity to develop supplies of oil fuel at home. The above brief resumé is in my opinion in general terms of the proper line of development. There is in our country at the present time a colossal waste of fuel. By proper conservation we should be able to get the same results with an expenditure of less than half the fuel that is consumed to-day. It has always seemed a great pity to me that the Government should have been mesmerised by the word "electricty" and the day dreams of the electrical fanatic. They have appointed Electrical Commissioners. They should have appointed Heat, Power, and Light Commissioners, whose duties should be to foster fuel conservation on gneral lines, and not think only in terms of electricity. I trust that the duties of the Electrical Commissioners will be extended by the Government to embrace those other duties, and that gentlemen here present will use their influence to that end. For the purpose of this paper I have endeavoured to obtain definite comparisons and figures showing the efficiency of the gasification of coal at the pits' mouth, and the distribution of the gas and liquid fuel to the user in the place of coal, but it is almost impossible to give either a financial or thermal balance sheet for which I could vouch. There are even difficulties in giving the balance sheets of old and well-tried processes--so many factors are variable. Many balance sheets of new processes have been given from time to time; these have had for their principal object the raising of money from the general public for the flotation of companies, and are therefore not of the character to satisfy a meeting such as this. Gasworks. In placing before you the different processes for the heat treatment of coal for the purpose of transforming beat units from solid to gaseous and liquid forms, I would remind you that 1 have been closely connected with one special form of plant for such purpose for many years, that is the continuous carbonisation of coal in vertical retorts. I have endeavoured, however, to free my mind of all prejudice and I would ask you to take any criticism of existing systems as being made with the sole purpose of elucidating the problem and endeavouring to obtain the best result for the nation. The best known method of heat treatment of solid fuel is the carbonisation of coal at the gas works. The prime object of such carbonisation was the manufacture of coal gas for the purpose of lighting, the light being obtained from the luminous flame of the coal gas consumed in a specially constructed burner. Starting as a low temperature process, it gradually became, with the improvement of materials and of construction and advanced knowledge, a high temperature process. The quality of the tar oils obtained hanged during this evolution. High temperature meant higher through-puts for the plant, less capital cost, higher yield of gas, less labour and a better financial result, the solid residue gradually finding a ready though somewhat fluctuating market. The discovery of the Welsbach gas mantle and the lowering of the price of the gas, due to improved methods, considerably increased the public demand for gas, while the possibility of using the gas for heating, cooking, and power purposes further increased the importance of the gas supply to the community. Gas undertakings were, however, greatly hampered by antiquated and restrictive legislation, and were not able to take advantage of the possibilities presented by the new developments in heating, lighting, and power. Further, during the War, the existing restrictive legislation as to raising capital, coupled with high costs, definitely prevented the same advance being made as in other industries. Now that many of these restrictions have been removed or relaxed, it is possible to forecast the immediate lines of gas works development. There are, roughly speaking, two forms of carbonising plant in use in gas works-horizontal fireclay retorts, charged and discharged by means of machinery, and vertical retorts constructed so that the coal travels continuously through by gravity. The advantage of the horizontal retorts is that they already exist in most works, have a low capital cost, and can more readily be adapted to treat varying forms of coal. The disadvantages of horizontal retorts are obvious. The large ground space they take up, the arduous conditions which they impase on the workmen, the amount of labour needed, the waste of heat in the discharge of hot coke, and the unavoidable nuisance caused by smoke, dust, and steam in the working operations. Among the advantages of the continuous working vertical retorts are the small ground space required, the absence of all nuisance, the good working conditions, and the increased make of gas and residuals. The disadvantages are the high capital cost and the fact that the retorts are more sensitive than horizontal retorts to changes of quality in the coal. Vertical retorts can and do carbonise any quality of coal very successfully so long as the quality remains substantiaily constant, but quick changes from, say Derbyshire to Durham coal, from a light to a heavy caking coal, must of necessity upset the efficiency of the plant and give extra trouble in working. During the War, the restrictions as to the candle power of the gas allowed to be supplied were relaxed, coal was also scarce and everyone endeavoured to obtain as much gas from coal as 1 |