not confined to this or that province, but must form the language of the nation, and every where intelligible.

601. a. In the third place, this Usage must be Present.

b. Many words formerly in current use have, from various causes, becom obsolete, that is, have ceased to be employed by good writers or speakers. In de termining, therefore, what words are to be considered obsolete, regard must be ba to the species of composition, and to the nature of the subject. Poetry, for instance is allowed a greater latitude than prose, and therefore a word, which we shoul reject as a barbarism in prose, may, with strict propriety, be admitted into versc But even in poetry, there are limits which must not be passed; and any word which cannot plead the authority of Milton, or some standard contemporary poet may be justly regarded as obsolete. But in prose (except in burlesque, or in treat ing of passages of ancient story, or when the subject is on some art or science), no word should be employed which has ceased to be used by good writers for the las half-century. This remark is applicable, not only to terms and phrases, but als to the declension, combination, and construction of words.

602. a. The usages of written, rather than of oral language, determine the rules of Grammar, because the former exhibit not only present but national and reputable usage.

b. Another reason for forming the rules of Grammar on the usages of written rather than of oral language is, that oral language is not generally uttered with sufficient care to avoid mistakes; but written language requires greater caution in the choice and accuracy of expression, that the meaning of the writer may be dis. tinctly conveyed.

CANONS OF CRITICISM.

LESSON 89.

603. As Good Usage is not always uniform in its decisions, unquestionable authorities being found for different modes of expression, it has been found desirable to draw up certain Canons or Rules of criticism, by which the stu dent will be enabled to decide to which mode of expression the preference is due. The subjoined Canons, proposed by Dr. Campbell, in his Philosophy of Rhetoric, have received the approbation of every judicious writer on this subject.

1. Canons to determine the Choice of Words.

604. a. Canon 1. When usage is divided as to any particular words or phrases, and when one of the expressions is susceptible of a different meaning, while the other admits only one signification, the expression, which is strictly univocal, should be preferred; thus, "To speak contemptuously of a person," is better than "to speak contemptibly," as the latter term signifies that the manner of speaking deserved contempt.

b. For this reason, aught, signifying "any thing," is better than ought; scarcely, as an adverb, is better than scarce; by consequence is preferable to of consequence, which signifies also " of importance."

The term primitive, as equivalent to original, is preferable to primary. The latter is synonymous with principal, and is opposed to secondary; the former is equivalent to original, and is opposed to derivative or acquired.

605. a. Canon 2. In doubtful cases, analogy should be regarded; thus, contemporary is better than cotemporary, con being used before a consonant, and co before a vowel; as, concomitant, coeval.

b. For a similar reason, "he needs," ""he dares," "whether he will or not," are preferable to "he need," "he dare," "whether he will or no."

606. Canon 3. When expressions are in other respects equal, that should be preferred, which is most agreeable to

the ear.

607. Canon 4. When none of the preceding Rules takes place, regard should be had to simplicity. On this ground, accept, approve, admit, are preferable to accept of, approve of, admit of.

2. Canons to determine the Disuse or Rejection of Words and Phrases.

608. a. Though no expression or mode of speech, which is not sanctioned by usage, can be justified, we must not, hence, suppose that every phraseology sanctioned by usage, is to be retained. In such cases, custom may be properly checked by criticism, the province of which is, not only to remonstrate against the introduction of any word or phraseology, which may be either unnecessary or contrary to analogy, but also to exclude whatever is reprehensible, though in general use.

b. It is by the exercise of this prerogative of criticism, that languages are gradually refined and improved, which would otherwise either become stationary or hasten to decline. In exercising this authority, criticism cannot pretend instantly to degrade any phraseology, which she may deem objectionable; but she may, by repeated remonstrances, gradually cancel it. Her decisions, in such cases, may be properly regulated by the following canons, as delivered by the same author.

609. a. Canon 1. All words and phrases particularly harsh, and not absolutely necessary, should be dismissed; as, unsuccessfulness, wrongheadedness.

b. A word or phrase is considered necessary, when there are no synonymous words in the event of a dismission, to supply its place, or no way of conveying properly the same idea without the aid of circumlocution.

610. The following Criteria will enable the student to determine what words are considered objectionable :

a. Criterion 1. Terms composed of words already compounded, the several parts

b. Criterion 2. When a word is so formed and accented as to render it of difficult utterance; such as, questionless, primarily, peremptorily.

c. Criterion 3. A short or unaccented syllable repeated at the end of a word is always disagreeable, and should, therefore, be avoided; as in holily, sillily.

611. Canon 2. When the Etymology plainly points to a different signification from what the word bears, propriety and simplicity require its dismission. Thus, the word beholden taken for obliged, and the verb to unloose for to loose or untie, should be rejected.

For the same reason, annul and disannul ought not to be considered synonymous. 612. a. Canon 3. When words become obsolete, or are never used except in particular phrases, they should be rejected; as they give the style an air of vulgarity, while their general disuse renders them obscure.

99 66

b. Of these, lief, dint, whit, moot, pro and con, furnish examples; as, “I had as lief go;"" by dint of argument; a moot point; ""it was argued pro and con." These phraseologies are too vulgar to be admitted into good writing.

613. Canon 4. All words and phrases which, analysed grammatically, include a solecism, should be dismissed; as, "I had rather go," for "I would rather go," or, "I'd rather go."

614. Canon 5. All expressions which, according to the established Rules of the language, either, 1. have no meaning, or, 2. involve a contradiction, or, 3. according to the fair construction of the words, convey a meaning different from the intention of the speaker, should be dismissed.

1. Of expressions which have little or no meaning, the following are examples:"Currying favour." "Having a month's mind for a thing." Such expressions ought always to be avoided.

2. Of expressions involving a contradiction, the following will serve as an example. There were four ladies in the company, every one prettier than another.” This is impossible.

3. The following expressions convey a meaning different from the intention of the speaker; "He sings a good song;" this phrase, as it is at present constructed, implies that the song is good; but the speaker meant to say, "He sings well." In the same manner, when it is said, "This is the best part he acts," the sentence, according to the strict interpretation of the words, expresses an opinion, not of the manner of his acting, but of the part or character which he acts. It should, therefore, be, "He acts this part better than any other." For a similar reason, the following sentence is incorrect; "Who is learning you geography ?" instead of "Who is teaching you geography ?"

II.-STYLE.

LESSON 90.

615. STYLE is the peculiar manner of expression which we adopt to convey our ideas to others. Some qualities of style will be varied according to the mental constitution of each writer, but others must be regarded as common to all. For whether the style be concise or diffuse, plain or ornamental, must depend upon the taste and ability of an author; but clearness and accuracy of expression are qualities essential in all.

616. The principal qualities of a good Style, are Perspicuity and Energy; and, next in importance, Elegance.

PERSPICUITY OF STYLE.

617. a. PERSPICUITY OF EXPRESSION implies the use of such words and phrases, and such an arrangement of them, as shall convey our ideas with clearness, accuracy, and precision.

b. Perspicuity of Expression is not at all concerned with the correctness or incorrectness of our sentiments and reasonings. Accuracy in these respects must depend on the application of good common sense, careful investigation, and logical skill. The rules of Perspicuity enable us to convey our meaning, whatever that meaning may be, not only intelligibly, but with such distinctness and certainty, as cannot be misunderstood by an ordinary mind.

618. a. Though Perspicuity is an essential, yet, remarks Dr. Whately, it is a relative quality, and, consequently, cannot properly be asserted of any work without a tacit reference to the class of readers or hearers for which it is designed. The style which is adapted to the learned, may be quite unsuitable to the illiterate. We must, therefore, take into consideration the degree and kind of attention, which the individuals whom we are addressing, have been accustomed, or are likely to bestow. Some hearers or readers, for instance, will be found slow of apprehension indeed, but capable of understanding what is very copiously and gradually explained to them; while others, on the contrary, who are much quicker in perceiving the sense of what is expressed in a short compass, are incapable of long attention, and are not only wearied, but absolutely bewildered, by a diffuse Style. b. It is not, however, to be understood, because extreme conciseness is ill-suited to hearers or readers, whose intellectual powers and cultivation are but small, that a prolix style is therefore best adapted to such minds. Both extremes are, in general, improper. Most of those who could comprehend the meaning, when briefly expressed, and many of those who could not do so, are likely to be bewildered by too great an expansion; and, being unable to maintain a steady attention to what is said, they forget part of what they have heard or read before the sense is comp.ete. To avoid the disadvantages both of conciseness and prolixity,

sentiment and argument in many different forms of expression, each in itself brief, but all together, affording such an expansion of the sense to be conveyed, and so detaining the mind upon it, as the case may require. Care must, of course, be taken that the repetition be not too glaringly apparent; the variation must not consist in the mere use of synonymous words; but what has been expressed in appropriate terms may be repeated in metaphorical; the antecedent and consequent of an argument, or the parts of an antithesis, may be transposed; or the several different points that have been enumerated, may be presented in a varied order, &c.

619. Perspicuity refers, 1st., to the right use of Words and Phrases; 2ndly, to the Structure of Sentences.

620. Perspicuity in the use of Words and Phrases requires three things; namely,

1. Purity, or the use of good modern English Words.

2. Propriety, or the use of such words and phrases as the best usage has appropriated to those ideas which we intend to express by them.

3. Precision, or the restriction to the use of such words and phrases as exactly convey the meaning intended, and nothing more than the meaning.

WORDS AND PHRASES.

Purity.

621. PURITY OF STYLE consists in the use of such words and constructions only as belong to the idiom of the language which we speak; and requires an adherence to the following Rules:

622. a. Rule 1. All Foreign words and Phrases must be avoided, except in the description of such scenes and objects as absolutely require them.

b. Such words as the following will be excluded from every truly English composition,-opiniatre for positive, sortie for sally, dernier ressort for last resort, beaux arts for liberal arts, politesse, delicatesse, hauteur, for politeness, delicacy, haughtiness. Continental tourists, and the numerous admirers of French, Ger. man, and Italian literature are very prone to slide into this fault.

c. The following observations of Dr. Campbell on this subject will be deemed just and conclusive by every intelligent mind."Nothing," says the Doctor, "can be a greater violation of correct taste, than the introduction of French words and phrases into our compositions; for, it is the height of absurdity, to suppose that we render ourselves intelligible in proportion to the difficulty and peculiarity of our expressions. There are occasions, indeed, when the use of foreign and learned words may become necessary; for instance, when foreign inventions and discoveries are introduced, it is proper that the name should accompany the thing. Even evils of a foreign growth, if we have not, in our language, words precisely corresponding to them, may be suffered to retain their original designation. But, as a general Rule, in other cases, it must be observed, that whenever we have, in our own language, a word or phrase equally expressive and striking, a writer cannot be justified in supplanting it by the use of one that is foreign."

d. "The following considerations ought to influence_authors from wantonly admitting foreign words into their productions. First; It ought to be remembered,